Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Pediatric Endocrinology pp 439–476Cite as

Thyroid Neoplasia

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

This chapter reviews recent advances in the management of thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancers (papillary thyroid cancer, PTC; follicular thyroid cancer, FTC) and medullary thyroid cancer (MTC). The latter is usually associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) type II in children.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   449.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Hedinger C, Williams ED, Sobin LH. The WHO histological classification of thyroid tumors: a commentary on the second edition. Cancer. 1989;63(5):908–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Wells SA Jr, Asa SL, Dralle H, Elisei R, Evans DB, Gagel RF, Lee N, Machens A, Moley JF, Pacini F, et al. Revised American Thyroid Association guidelines for the management of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid. 2015;25(6):567–610.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Francis GL, Waguespack SG, Bauer AJ, Angelos P, Benvenga S, Cerutti JM, Dinauer CA, Hamilton J, Hay ID, Luster M, et al. Management guidelines for children with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid. 2015;25(7):716–59.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Mussa A, De Andrea M, Motta M, Mormile A, Palestini N, Corrias A. Predictors of malignancy in children with thyroid nodules. J Pediatr. 2015;167(4):886–92. e881

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Hayashida N, Imaizumi M, Shimura H, Okubo N, Asari Y, Nigawara T, Midorikawa S, Kotani K, Nakaji S, Otsuru A, et al. Thyroid ultrasound findings in children from three Japanese prefectures: aomori, yamanashi and nagasaki. PLoS One. 2013;8(12):e83220.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Gupta A, Ly S, Castroneves LA, Frates MC, Benson CB, Feldman HA, Wassner AJ, Smith JR, Marqusee E, Alexander EK, et al. A standardized assessment of thyroid nodules in children confirms higher cancer prevalence than in adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(8):3238–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Gupta A, Ly S, Castroneves LA, Frates MC, Benson CB, Feldman HA, Wassner AJ, Smith JR, Marqusee E, Alexander EK, et al. How are childhood thyroid nodules discovered: opportunities for improving early detection. J Pediatr. 2014;164(3):658–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Capezzone M, Marchisotta S, Cantara S, Busonero G, Brilli L, Pazaitou-Panayiotou K, Carli AF, Caruso G, Toti P, Capitani S, et al. Familial non-medullary thyroid carcinoma displays the features of clinical anticipation suggestive of a distinct biological entity. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2008;15(4):1075–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Charkes ND. On the prevalence of familial nonmedullary thyroid cancer in multiply affected kindreds. Thyroid. 2006;16(2):181–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Mazeh H, Benavidez J, Poehls JL, Youngwirth L, Chen H, Sippel RS. In patients with thyroid cancer of follicular cell origin, a family history of nonmedullary thyroid cancer in one first-degree relative is associated with more aggressive disease. Thyroid. 2012;22(1):3–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Moses W, Weng J, Kebebew E. Prevalence, clinicopathologic features, and somatic genetic mutation profile in familial versus sporadic nonmedullary thyroid cancer. Thyroid. 2011;21(4):367–71.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Robenshtok E, Tzvetov G, Grozinsky-Glasberg S, Shraga-Slutzky I, Weinstein R, Lazar L, Serov S, Singer J, Hirsch D, Shimon I, et al. Clinical characteristics and outcome of familial nonmedullary thyroid cancer: a retrospective controlled study. Thyroid. 2011;21(1):43–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Sippel RS, Caron NR, Clark OH. An evidence-based approach to familial nonmedullary thyroid cancer: screening, clinical management, and follow-up. World J Surg. 2007;31(5):924–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Mihailovic J, Nikoletic K, Srbovan D. Recurrent disease in juvenile differentiated thyroid carcinoma: prognostic factors, treatments, and outcomes. J Nucl Med. 2014;55(5):710–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Rosario PW, Mineiro Filho AF, Prates BS, Silva LC, Lacerda RX, Calsolari MR. Ultrasonographic screening for thyroid cancer in siblings of patients with apparently sporadic papillary carcinoma. Thyroid. 2012;22(8):805–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Steinhagen E, Guillem JG, Chang G, Salo-Mullen EE, Shia J, Fish S, Stadler ZK, Markowitz AJ. The prevalence of thyroid cancer and benign thyroid disease in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis may be higher than previously recognized. Clin Colorectal Cancer. 2012;11(4):304–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Septer S, Slowik V, Morgan R, Dai H, Attard T. Thyroid cancer complicating familial adenomatous polyposis: mutation spectrum of at-risk individuals. Hered Cancer Clin Pract. 2013;11(1):13.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Bertherat J, Horvath A, Groussin L, Grabar S, Boikos S, Cazabat L, Libe R, Rene-Corail F, Stergiopoulos S, Bourdeau I, et al. Mutations in regulatory subunit type 1A of cyclic adenosine 5′-monophosphate-dependent protein kinase (PRKAR1A): phenotype analysis in 353 patients and 80 different genotypes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(6):2085–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Ngeow J, Mester J, Rybicki LA, Ni Y, Milas M, Eng C. Incidence and clinical characteristics of thyroid cancer in prospective series of individuals with Cowden and Cowden-like syndrome characterized by Germline PTEN, SDH, or KLLN alterations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(12):E2063–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Smith JR, Marqusee E, Webb S, Nose V, Fishman SJ, Shamberger RC, Frates MC, Huang SA. Thyroid nodules and cancer in children with PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(1):34–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Lauper JM, Krause A, Vaughan TL, Monnat RJ Jr. Spectrum and risk of neoplasia in Werner syndrome: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2013;8(4):e59709.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Rutter MM, Jha P, Schultz KA, Sheil A, Harris AK, Bauer AJ, Field AL, Geller J, Hill DA. DICER1 mutations and differentiated thyroid carcinoma: evidence of a direct association. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101(1):1–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Doros L, Schultz KA, Stewart DR, Bauer AJ, Williams G, Rossi CT, Carr A, Yang J, Dehner LP, Messinger Y, et al. In: Pagon RA, Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Bird TD, Dolan CR, Fong CT, Smith RJH, Stephens K, editors. DICER1-related disorders. Seattle: GeneReviews(R); 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Eng C. In: Pagon RA, Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Wallace SE, Amemiya A, Bean LJH, Bird TD, Fong CT, Mefford HC, Smith RJH, et al., editors. PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome. Seattle: GeneReviews(R); 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Jasperson KW, Burt RW. In: Pagon RA, Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Wallace SE, Amemiya A, Bean LJH, Bird TD, Fong CT, Mefford HC, Smith RJH, et al., editors. APC-associated polyposis conditions. Seattle: GeneReviews(R); 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Aydin Y, Besir FH, Erkan ME, Yazgan O, Gungor A, Onder E, Coskun H, Aydin L. Spectrum and prevalence of nodular thyroid diseases detected by ultrasonography in the Western Black Sea region of Turkey. Med Ultrason. 2014;16(2):100–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Niedziela M, Korman E, Breborowicz D, Trejster E, Harasymczuk J, Warzywoda M, Rolski M, Breborowicz J. A prospective study of thyroid nodular disease in children and adolescents in western Poland from 1996 to 2000 and the incidence of thyroid carcinoma relative to iodine deficiency and the Chernobyl disaster. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2004;42(1):84–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Caldwell KL, Makhmudov A, Ely E, Jones RL, Wang RY. Iodine status of the U.S. population, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005-2006 and 2007-2008. Thyroid. 2011;21(4):419–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Mazzaferri EL. Management of a solitary thyroid nodule. N Engl J Med. 1993;328(8):553–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Schneider AB, Bekerman C, Leland J, Rosengarten J, Hyun H, Collins B, Shore-Freedman E, Gierlowski TC. Thyroid nodules in the follow-up of irradiated individuals: comparison of thyroid ultrasound with scanning and palpation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82(12):4020–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Ito M, Yamashita S, Ashizawa K, Namba H, Hoshi M, Shibata Y, Sekine I, Nagataki S, Shigematsu I. Childhood thyroid diseases around Chernobyl evaluated by ultrasound examination and fine needle aspiration cytology. Thyroid. 1995;5(5):365–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Meadows AT, Friedman DL, Neglia JP, Mertens AC, Donaldson SS, Stovall M, Hammond S, Yasui Y, Inskip PD. Second neoplasms in survivors of childhood cancer: findings from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study cohort. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(14):2356–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Ron E, Lubin JH, Shore RE, Mabuchi K, Modan B, Pottern LM, Schneider AB, Tucker MA, Boice JD Jr. Thyroid cancer after exposure to external radiation: a pooled analysis of seven studies. Radiat Res. 1995;141(3):259–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Ronckers CM, Sigurdson AJ, Stovall M, Smith SA, Mertens AC, Liu Y, Hammond S, Land CE, Neglia JP, Donaldson SS, et al. Thyroid cancer in childhood cancer survivors: a detailed evaluation of radiation dose response and its modifiers. Radiat Res. 2006;166(4):618–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Li Z, Franklin J, Zelcer S, Sexton T, Husein M. Ultrasound surveillance for thyroid malignancies in survivors of childhood cancer following radiotherapy: a single institutional experience. Thyroid. 2014;24(12):1796–805.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Clement SC, Kremer LC, Links TP, Mulder RL, Ronckers CM, van Eck-Smit BL, van Rijn RR, van der Pal HJ, Tissing WJ, Janssens GO, et al. Is outcome of differentiated thyroid carcinoma influenced by tumor stage at diagnosis? Cancer Treat Rev. 2015;41(1):9–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Sklar C, Whitton J, Mertens A, Stovall M, Green D, Marina N, Greffe B, Wolden S, Robison L. Abnormalities of the thyroid in survivors of Hodgkin’s disease: data from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85(9):3227–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. de Vathaire F, Francois P, Schlumberger M, Schweisguth O, Hardiman C, Grimaud E, Oberlin O, Hill C, Lemerle J, Flamant R. Epidemiological evidence for a common mechanism for neuroblastoma and differentiated thyroid tumour. Br J Cancer. 1992;65(3):425–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Corrias A, Cassio A, Weber G, Mussa A, Wasniewska M, Rapa A, Gastaldi R, Einaudi S, Baronio F, Vigone MC, et al. Thyroid nodules and cancer in children and adolescents affected by autoimmune thyroiditis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2008;162(6):526–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Lee SJ, Lim GY, Kim JY, Chung MH. Diagnostic performance of thyroid ultrasonography screening in pediatric patients with a hypothyroid, hyperthyroid or euthyroid goiter. Pediatr Radiol. 2016;46(1):104–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Kambalapalli M, Gupta A, Prasad UR, Francis GL. Ultrasound characteristics of the thyroid in children and adolescents with goiter: a single center experience. Thyroid. 2015;25(2):176–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Kovatch KJ, Bauer AJ, Isaacoff EJ, Prickett KK, Adzick NS, Kazahaya K, Sullivan LM, Mostoufi-Moab S. Pediatric thyroid carcinoma in patients with Graves’ disease: the role of ultrasound in selecting patients for definitive therapy. Horm Res Paediatr. 2015;83:408–13. https://doi.org/10.1159/000381185.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. McLeod DS, Watters KF, Carpenter AD, Ladenson PW, Cooper DS, Ding EL. Thyrotropin and thyroid cancer diagnosis: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97(8):2682–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Boelaert K, Horacek J, Holder RL, Watkinson JC, Sheppard MC, Franklyn JA. Serum thyrotropin concentration as a novel predictor of malignancy in thyroid nodules investigated by fine-needle aspiration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(11):4295–301.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Eszlinger M, Niedziela M, Typlt E, Jaeschke H, Huth S, Schaarschmidt J, Aigner T, Trejster E, Krohn K, Bosenberg E, et al. Somatic mutations in 33 benign and malignant hot thyroid nodules in children and adolescents. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2014;393(1–2):39–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Jatana KR, Zimmerman D. Pediatric thyroid nodules and malignancy. Otolaryngol Clin N Am. 2015;48(1):47–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Rinaldi S, Plummer M, Biessy C, Tsilidis KK, Ostergaard JN, Overvad K, Tjonneland A, Halkjaer J, Boutron-Ruault MC, Clavel-Chapelon F, et al. Thyroid-stimulating hormone, thyroglobulin, and thyroid hormones and risk of differentiated thyroid carcinoma: the EPIC study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2014;106(6):dju097.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Niedziela M, Breborowicz D, Trejster E, Korman E. Hot nodules in children and adolescents in western Poland from 1996 to 2000: clinical analysis of 31 patients. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2002;15(6):823–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. American Institute of Ultrasound in M, American College of R, Society for Pediatric R, Society of Radiologists in U. AIUM practice guideline for the performance of a thyroid and parathyroid ultrasound examination. J Ultrasound Med. 2013;32(7):1319–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Haugen BR, Alexander EK, Bible KC, Doherty GM, Mandel SJ, Nikiforov YE, Pacini F, Randolph GW, Sawka AM, Schlumberger M, et al. 2015 American Thyroid Association management guidelines for adult patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer: the American Thyroid Association guidelines task force on thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid. 2016;26(1):1–133.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Niedziela M. Pathogenesis, diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules in children. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2006;13(2):427–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Gharib H, Papini E, Valcavi R, Baskin HJ, Crescenzi A, Dottorini ME, Duick DS, Guglielmi R, Hamilton CR Jr, Zeiger MA, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and Associazione Medici Endocrinologi medical guidelines for clinical practice for the diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules. Endocr Pract. 2006;12(1):63–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Akaishi J, Sugino K, Kameyama K, Masaki C, Matsuzu K, Suzuki A, Uruno T, Ohkuwa K, Shibuya H, Kitagawa W, et al. Clinicopathologic features and outcomes in patients with diffuse sclerosing variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma. World J Surg. 2015;39(7):1728–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Chen CC, Chen WC, Peng SL, Huang SM. Diffuse sclerosing variant of thyroid papillary carcinoma: diagnostic challenges occur with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. J Formos Med Assoc. 2013;112(6):358–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Jung HK, Hong SW, Kim EK, Yoon JH, Kwak JY. Diffuse sclerosing variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma: sonography and specimen radiography. J Ultrasound Med. 2013;32(2):347–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Kuo CS, Tang KT, Lin JD, Yang AH, Lee CH, Lin HD. Diffuse sclerosing variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma with multiple metastases and elevated serum carcinoembryonic antigen level. Thyroid. 2012;22(11):1187–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Lee JY, Shin JH, Han BK, Ko EY, Kang SS, Kim JY, Oh YL, Chung JH. Diffuse sclerosing variant of papillary carcinoma of the thyroid: imaging and cytologic findings. Thyroid. 2007;17(6):567–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Regalbuto C, Malandrino P, Tumminia A, Le Moli R, Vigneri R, Pezzino V. A diffuse sclerosing variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma: clinical and pathologic features and outcomes of 34 consecutive cases. Thyroid. 2011;21(4):383–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Takagi N, Hirokawa M, Nobuoka Y, Higuchi M, Kuma S, Miyauchi A. Diffuse sclerosing variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma: a study of fine needle aspiration cytology in 20 patients. Cytopathology. 2014;25(3):199–204.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Thompson LD, Wieneke JA, Heffess CS. Diffuse sclerosing variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma: a clinicopathologic and immunophenotypic analysis of 22 cases. Endocr Pathol. 2005;16(4):331–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Vukasovic A, Kuna SK, Ostovic KT, Prgomet D, Banek T. Diffuse sclerosing variant of thyroid carcinoma presenting as Hashimoto thyroiditis: a case report. Coll Antropol. 2012;36(Suppl 2):219–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Koo JS, Hong S, Park CS. Diffuse sclerosing variant is a major subtype of papillary thyroid carcinoma in the young. Thyroid. 2009;19(11):1225–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Pillai S, Gopalan V, Smith RA, Lam AK. Diffuse sclerosing variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma – an update of its clinicopathological features and molecular biology. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2015;94(1):64–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Leboulleux S, Girard E, Rose M, Travagli JP, Sabbah N, Caillou B, Hartl DM, Lassau N, Baudin E, Schlumberger M. Ultrasound criteria of malignancy for cervical lymph nodes in patients followed up for differentiated thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(9):3590–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Lyshchik A, Drozd V, Demidchik Y, Reiners C. Diagnosis of thyroid cancer in children: value of gray-scale and power doppler US. Radiology. 2005;235(2):604–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Baskin HJ. Detection of recurrent papillary thyroid carcinoma by thyroglobulin assessment in the needle washout after fine-needle aspiration of suspicious lymph nodes. Thyroid. 2004;14(11):959–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Boi F, Baghino G, Atzeni F, Lai ML, Faa G, Mariotti S. The diagnostic value for differentiated thyroid carcinoma metastases of thyroglobulin (Tg) measurement in washout fluid from fine-needle aspiration biopsy of neck lymph nodes is maintained in the presence of circulating anti-Tg antibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(4):1364–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Oertel JE, Klinck GH. Structural changes in the thyroid glands of healthy young men. Med Ann Dist Columbia. 1965;34:75–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Pinchot SN, Al-Wagih H, Schaefer S, Sippel R, Chen H. Accuracy of fine-needle aspiration biopsy for predicting neoplasm or carcinoma in thyroid nodules 4 cm or larger. Arch Surg. 2009;144(7):649–55.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. McCoy KL, Jabbour N, Ogilvie JB, Ohori NP, Carty SE, Yim JH. The incidence of cancer and rate of false-negative cytology in thyroid nodules greater than or equal to 4 cm in size. Surgery. 2007;142(6):837–44; discussion 844 e831–833.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Wharry LI, McCoy KL, Stang MT, Armstrong MJ, LeBeau SO, Tublin ME, Sholosh B, Silbermann A, Ohori NP, Nikiforov YE, et al. Thyroid nodules (>/=4 cm): can ultrasound and cytology reliably exclude cancer? World J Surg. 2014;38(3):614–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Norlen O, Charlton A, Sarkis LM, Henwood T, Shun A, Gill AJ, Delbridge L. Risk of malignancy for each Bethesda class in pediatric thyroid nodules. J Pediatr Surg. 2015;50(7):1147–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Buryk MA, Simons JP, Picarsic J, Monaco SE, Ozolek JA, Joyce J, Gurtunca N, Nikiforov YE, Feldman Witchel S. Can malignant thyroid nodules be distinguished from benign thyroid nodules in children and adolescents by clinical characteristics? A review of 89 pediatric patients with thyroid nodules. Thyroid. 2015;25(4):392–400.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Cibas ES, Ali SZ. The Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathology. Thyroid. 2009;19(11):1159–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Baloch ZW, LiVolsi VA, Asa SL, Rosai J, Merino MJ, Randolph G, Vielh P, DeMay RM, Sidawy MK, Frable WJ. Diagnostic terminology and morphologic criteria for cytologic diagnosis of thyroid lesions: a synopsis of the National Cancer Institute thyroid fine-needle aspiration state of the science conference. Diagn Cytopathol. 2008;36(6):425–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Theoharis CG, Schofield KM, Hammers L, Udelsman R, Chhieng DC. The Bethesda thyroid fine-needle aspiration classification system: year 1 at an academic institution. Thyroid. 2009;19(11):1215–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Luu MH, Fischer AH, Pisharodi L, Owens CL. Improved preoperative definitive diagnosis of papillary thyroid carcinoma in FNAs prepared with both ThinPrep and conventional smears compared with FNAs prepared with ThinPrep alone. Cancer Cytopathol. 2011;119(1):68–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Bongiovanni M, Spitale A, Faquin WC, Mazzucchelli L, Baloch ZW. The Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathology: a meta-analysis. Acta Cytol. 2012;56(4):333–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Baloch ZW, LiVolsi VA. Post fine-needle aspiration histologic alterations of thyroid revisited. Am J Clin Pathol. 1999;112(3):311–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Antic T, Taxy JB. Thyroid frozen section: supplementary or unnecessary? Am J Surg Pathol. 2013;37(2):282–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Kesmodel SB, Terhune KP, Canter RJ, Mandel SJ, LiVolsi VA, Baloch ZW, Fraker DL. The diagnostic dilemma of follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma. Surgery. 2003;134(6):1005–12; discussion 1012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Baloch Z, LiVolsi VA, Jain P, Jain R, Aljada I, Mandel S, Langer JE, Gupta PK. Role of repeat fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) in the management of thyroid nodules. Diagn Cytopathol. 2003;29(4):203–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Yassa L, Cibas ES, Benson CB, Frates MC, Doubilet PM, Gawande AA, Moore FD Jr, Kim BW, Nose V, Marqusee E, et al. Long-term assessment of a multidisciplinary approach to thyroid nodule diagnostic evaluation. Cancer. 2007;111(6):508–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Yang J, Schnadig V, Logrono R, Wasserman PG. Fine-needle aspiration of thyroid nodules: a study of 4703 patients with histologic and clinical correlations. Cancer. 2007;111(5):306–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Nikiforov YE, Carty SE, Chiosea SI, Coyne C, Duvvuri U, Ferris RL, Gooding WE, Hodak SP, LeBeau SO, Ohori NP, et al. Highly accurate diagnosis of cancer in thyroid nodules with follicular neoplasm/suspicious for a follicular neoplasm cytology by ThyroSeq v2 next-generation sequencing assay. Cancer. 2014;120(23):3627–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Nikiforov YE, Ohori NP, Hodak SP, Carty SE, LeBeau SO, Ferris RL, Yip L, Seethala RR, Tublin ME, Stang MT, et al. Impact of mutational testing on the diagnosis and management of patients with cytologically indeterminate thyroid nodules: a prospective analysis of 1056 FNA samples. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(11):3390–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Alexander EK, Kennedy GC, Baloch ZW, Cibas ES, Chudova D, Diggans J, Friedman L, Kloos RT, Livolsi VA, Mandel SJ, et al. Preoperative diagnosis of benign thyroid nodules with indeterminate cytology. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(8):705–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Cerutti JM. Employing genetic markers to improve diagnosis of thyroid tumor fine needle biopsy. Curr Genomics. 2011;12(8):589–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Duick DS. Overview of molecular biomarkers for enhancing the management of cytologically indeterminate thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer. Endocr Pract. 2012;18(4):611–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Ferraz C, Eszlinger M, Paschke R. Current state and future perspective of molecular diagnosis of fine-needle aspiration biopsy of thyroid nodules. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(7):2016–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Nikiforov YE, Nikiforova MN. Molecular genetics and diagnosis of thyroid cancer. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2011;7(10):569–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Pagan M, Kloos RT, Lin CF, Travers KJ, Matsuzaki H, Tom EY, Kim SY, Wong MG, Stewart AC, Huang J, et al. The diagnostic application of RNA sequencing in patients with thyroid cancer: an analysis of 851 variants and 133 fusions in 524 genes. BMC Bioinformatics. 2016;17(Suppl 1):6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Buryk MA, Monaco SE, Witchel SF, Mehta DK, Gurtunca N, Nikiforov YE, Simons JP. Preoperative cytology with molecular analysis to help guide surgery for pediatric thyroid nodules. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;77(10):1697–700.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Monaco SE, Pantanowitz L, Khalbuss WE, Benkovich VA, Ozolek J, Nikiforova MN, Simons JP, Nikiforov YE. Cytomorphological and molecular genetic findings in pediatric thyroid fine-needle aspiration. Cancer Cytopathol. 2012;120(5):342–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Nikita ME, Jiang W, Cheng SM, Hantash FM, McPhaul MJ, Newbury RO, Phillips SA, Reitz RE, Waldman FM, Newfield RS. Mutational analysis in pediatric thyroid cancer and correlations with age, ethnicity, and clinical presentation. Thyroid. 2016;26(2):227–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Ballester LY, Sarabia SF, Sayeed H, Patel N, Baalwa J, Athanassaki I, Hernandez JA, Fang E, Quintanilla NM, Roy A, et al. Integrating molecular testing in the diagnosis and management of children with thyroid lesions. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 2016;19(2):94–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Francis GL, Waguespack SG, Bauer AJ, Angelos P, Benvenga S, Cerutti JM, Dinauer CA, Hamilton J, Hay ID, Luster M, Parisi MT, Rachmiel M, Thompson GB, Yamashita S, Designates Chair (GLF) and Co-Chairs (AJB and SGW). Guidelines Task Force in Alphabetical Order Following the Chairs. Management guidelines for children with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer: the American Thyroid Association guidelines task force on pediatric thyroid cancer. Thyroid. 2015;25(7):716–59.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Picarsic JL, Buryk MA, Ozolek J, Ranganathan S, Monaco SE, Simons JP, Witchel SF, Gurtunca N, Joyce J, Zhong S, et al. Molecular characterization of sporadic pediatric thyroid carcinoma with the DNA/RNA ThyroSeq v2 next-generation sequencing assay. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 2016;19(2):115–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Prasad ML, Vyas M, Horne MJ, Virk RK, Morotti R, Liu Z, Tallini G, Nikiforova MN, Christison-Lagay ER, Udelsman R, et al. NTRK fusion oncogenes in pediatric papillary thyroid carcinoma in northeast United States. Cancer. 2016;122(7):1097–107.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Ricarte-Filho JC, Li S, Garcia-Rendueles ME, Montero-Conde C, Voza F, Knauf JA, Heguy A, Viale A, Bogdanova T, Thomas GA, et al. Identification of kinase fusion oncogenes in post-Chernobyl radiation-induced thyroid cancers. J Clin Invest. 2013;123(11):4935–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  101. Smith M, Pantanowitz L, Khalbuss WE, Benkovich VA, Monaco SE. Indeterminate pediatric thyroid fine needle aspirations: a study of 68 cases. Acta Cytol. 2013;57(4):341–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Nikiforov YE, Steward DL, Robinson-Smith TM, Haugen BR, Klopper JP, Zhu Z, Fagin JA, Falciglia M, Weber K, Nikiforova MN. Molecular testing for mutations in improving the fine-needle aspiration diagnosis of thyroid nodules. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(6):2092–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Hauch A, Al-Qurayshi Z, Randolph G, Kandil E. Total thyroidectomy is associated with increased risk of complications for low- and high-volume surgeons. Ann Surg Oncol. 2014;21(12):3844–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Sosa JA, Tuggle CT, Wang TS, Thomas DC, Boudourakis L, Rivkees S, Roman SA. Clinical and economic outcomes of thyroid and parathyroid surgery in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(8):3058–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Tuggle CT, Roman SA, Wang TS, Boudourakis L, Thomas DC, Udelsman R, Ann Sosa J. Pediatric endocrine surgery: who is operating on our children? Surgery. 2008;144(6):869–77; discussion 877.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Verloop H, Louwerens M, Schoones JW, Kievit J, Smit JW, Dekkers OM. Risk of hypothyroidism following hemithyroidectomy: systematic review and meta-analysis of prognostic studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97(7):2243–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Avram AM, Shulkin BL. Thyroid cancer in children. J Nucl Med. 2014;55(5):705–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Hogan AR, Zhuge Y, Perez EA, Koniaris LG, Lew JI, Sola JE. Pediatric thyroid carcinoma: incidence and outcomes in 1753 patients. J Surg Res. 2009;156(1):167–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Chen AY, Jemal A, Ward EM. Increasing incidence of differentiated thyroid cancer in the United States, 1988-2005. Cancer. 2009;115(16):3801–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Morris LG, Myssiorek D. Improved detection does not fully explain the rising incidence of well-differentiated thyroid cancer: a population-based analysis. Am J Surg. 2010;200(4):454–61.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  111. Wu XC, Chen VW, Steele B, Roffers S, Klotz JB, Correa CN, Carozza SE. Cancer incidence in adolescents and young adults in the United States, 1992-1997. J Adolesc Health. 2003;32(6):405–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Demidchik YE, Saenko VA, Yamashita S. Childhood thyroid cancer in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine after Chernobyl and at present. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2007;51(5):748–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. SEER Cancer Statisitcs Review, 1975-2007. http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/thyro.html – survival.

  114. Durante C, Haddy N, Baudin E, Leboulleux S, Hartl D, Travagli JP, Caillou B, Ricard M, Lumbroso JD, De Vathaire F, et al. Long-term outcome of 444 patients with distant metastases from papillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma: benefits and limits of radioiodine therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(8):2892–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Hay ID, Gonzalez-Losada T, Reinalda MS, Honetschlager JA, Richards ML, Thompson GB. Long-term outcome in 215 children and adolescents with papillary thyroid cancer treated during 1940 through 2008. World J Surg. 2010;34(6):1192–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Sugino K, Nagahama M, Kitagawa W, Shibuya H, Ohkuwa K, Uruno T, Suzuki A, Akaishi J, Masaki C, Matsuzu K, et al. Papillary thyroid carcinoma in children and adolescents: long-term follow-up and clinical characteristics. World J Surg. 2015;39(9):2259–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Vander Poorten V, Hens G, Delaere P. Thyroid cancer in children and adolescents. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013;21(2):135–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. O’Gorman CS, Hamilton J, Rachmiel M, Gupta A, Ngan BY, Daneman D. Thyroid cancer in childhood: a retrospective review of childhood course. Thyroid. 2010;20(4):375–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Lazar L, Lebenthal Y, Steinmetz A, Yackobovitch-Gavan M, Phillip M. Differentiated thyroid carcinoma in pediatric patients: comparison of presentation and course between pre-pubertal children and adolescents. J Pediatr. 2009;154(5):708–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Schreiner BF, Murphy WT. Malignant neoplasms of the thyroid gland. Ann Surg. 1934;99(1):116–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  121. Seidlin SM, Marinelli LD, Oshry E. Radioactive iodine therapy; effect on functioning metastases of adenocarcinoma of the thyroid. J Am Med Assoc. 1946;132(14):838–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Sugino K, Kure Y, Iwasaki H, Ozaki O, Mimura T, Matsumoto A, Ito K. Metastases to the regional lymph nodes, lymph node recurrence, and distant metastases in nonadvanced papillary thyroid carcinoma. Surg Today. 1995;25(4):324–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Machens A, Lorenz K, Nguyen Thanh P, Brauckhoff M, Dralle H. Papillary thyroid cancer in children and adolescents does not differ in growth pattern and metastatic behavior. J Pediatr. 2010;157(4):648–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Biko J, Reiners C, Kreissl MC, Verburg FA, Demidchik Y, Drozd V. Favourable course of disease after incomplete remission on (131)I therapy in children with pulmonary metastases of papillary thyroid carcinoma: 10 years follow-up. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2011;38(4):651–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. La Quaglia MP, Black T, Holcomb GW 3rd, Sklar C, Azizkhan RG, Haase GM, Newman KD. Differentiated thyroid cancer: clinical characteristics, treatment, and outcome in patients under 21 years of age who present with distant metastases. A report from the Surgical Discipline Committee of the Children’s Cancer Group. J Pediatr Surg. 2000;35(6):955–9; discussion 960.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Brown AP, Chen J, Hitchcock YJ, Szabo A, Shrieve DC, Tward JD. The risk of second primary malignancies up to three decades after the treatment of differentiated thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(2):504–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Marti JL, Jain KS, Morris LG. Increased risk of second primary malignancy in pediatric and young adult patients treated with radioactive iodine for differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid. 2015;25(6):681–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  128. Chow SM, Law SC, Mendenhall WM, Au SK, Yau S, Mang O, Lau WH. Differentiated thyroid carcinoma in childhood and adolescence-clinical course and role of radioiodine. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2004;42(2):176–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Tucker MA, Jones PH, Boice JD Jr, Robison LL, Stone BJ, Stovall M, Jenkin RD, Lubin JH, Baum ES, Siegel SE, et al. Therapeutic radiation at a young age is linked to secondary thyroid cancer. The Late Effects Study Group. Cancer Res. 1991;51(11):2885–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Fenton CL, Lukes Y, Nicholson D, Dinauer CA, Francis GL, Tuttle RM. The ret/PTC mutations are common in sporadic papillary thyroid carcinoma of children and young adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85(3):1170–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Penko K, Livezey J, Fenton C, Patel A, Nicholson D, Flora M, Oakley K, Tuttle RM, Francis G. BRAF mutations are uncommon in papillary thyroid cancer of young patients. Thyroid. 2005;15(4):320–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Henke LE, Perkins SM, Pfeifer JD, Ma C, Chen Y, DeWees T, Grigsby PW. BRAF V600E mutational status in pediatric thyroid cancer. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2014;61(7):1168–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Givens DJ, Buchmann LO, Agarwal AM, Grimmer JF, Hunt JP. BRAF V600E does not predict aggressive features of pediatric papillary thyroid carcinoma. Laryngoscope. 2014;124(9):E389–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Kebebew E. Hereditary non-medullary thyroid cancer. World J Surg. 2008;32(5):678–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Alsanea O, Wada N, Ain K, Wong M, Taylor K, Ituarte PH, Treseler PA, Weier HU, Freimer N, Siperstein AE, et al. Is familial non-medullary thyroid carcinoma more aggressive than sporadic thyroid cancer? A multicenter series. Surgery. 2000;128(6):1043–50;discussion 1050–1041.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Demidchik YE, Demidchik EP, Reiners C, Biko J, Mine M, Saenko VA, Yamashita S. Comprehensive clinical assessment of 740 cases of surgically treated thyroid cancer in children of Belarus. Ann Surg. 2006;243(4):525–32.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  137. Borson-Chazot F, Causeret S, Lifante JC, Augros M, Berger N, Peix JL. Predictive factors for recurrence from a series of 74 children and adolescents with differentiated thyroid cancer. World J Surg. 2004;28(11):1088–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Kouvaraki MA, Shapiro SE, Fornage BD, Edeiken-Monro BS, Sherman SI, Vassilopoulou-Sellin R, Lee JE, Evans DB. Role of preoperative ultrasonography in the surgical management of patients with thyroid cancer. Surgery. 2003;134(6):946–54; discussion 954-945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Waguespack SG, Francis G. Initial management and follow-up of differentiated thyroid cancer in children. J Natl Compr Cancer Netw. 2010;8(11):1289–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  140. Knudsen N, Christiansen E, Brandt-Christensen M, Nygaard B, Perrild H. Age- and sex-adjusted iodine/creatinine ratio. A new standard in epidemiological surveys? Evaluation of three different estimates of iodine excretion based on casual urine samples and comparison to 24 h values. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2000;54(4):361–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Sohn SY, Choi JH, Kim NK, Joung JY, Cho YY, Park SM, Kim TH, Jin SM, Bae JC, Lee SY, et al. The impact of iodinated contrast agent administered during preoperative computed tomography scan on body iodine pool in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer preparing for radioactive iodine treatment. Thyroid. 2014;24(5):872–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Welch Dinauer CA, Tuttle RM, Robie DK, McClellan DR, Francis GL. Extensive surgery improves recurrence-free survival for children and young patients with class I papillary thyroid carcinoma. J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34(12):1799–804.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Handkiewicz-Junak D, Wloch J, Roskosz J, Krajewska J, Kropinska A, Pomorski L, Kukulska A, Prokurat A, Wygoda Z, Jarzab B. Total thyroidectomy and adjuvant radioiodine treatment independently decrease locoregional recurrence risk in childhood and adolescent differentiated thyroid cancer. J Nucl Med. 2007;48(6):879–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Jarzab B, Handkiewicz Junak D, Wloch J, Kalemba B, Roskosz J, Kukulska A, Puch Z. Multivariate analysis of prognostic factors for differentiated thyroid carcinoma in children. Eur J Nucl Med. 2000;27(7):833–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Grigsby PW, Gal-or A, Michalski JM, Doherty GM. Childhood and adolescent thyroid carcinoma. Cancer. 2002;95(4):724–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Musacchio MJ, Kim AW, Vijungco JD, Prinz RA. Greater local recurrence occurs with “berry picking” than neck dissection in thyroid cancer. Am Surg. 2003;69(3):191–6; discussion 196-197.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. van Santen HM, Aronson DC, Vulsma T, Tummers RF, Geenen MM, de Vijlder JJ, van den Bos C. Frequent adverse events after treatment for childhood-onset differentiated thyroid carcinoma: a single institute experience. Eur J Cancer. 2004;40(11):1743–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Thompson GB, Hay ID. Current strategies for surgical management and adjuvant treatment of childhood papillary thyroid carcinoma. World J Surg. 2004;28(12):1187–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Bilimoria KY, Bentrem DJ, Ko CY, Stewart AK, Winchester DP, Talamonti MS, Sturgeon C. Extent of surgery affects survival for papillary thyroid cancer. Ann Surg. 2007;246(3):375–81; discussion 381-374.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  150. Porterfield JR, Factor DA, Grant CS. Operative technique for modified radical neck dissection in papillary thyroid carcinoma. Arch Surg. 2009;144(6):567–74; discussion 574.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Jarzab B, Handkiewicz-Junak D. Differentiated thyroid cancer in children and adults: same or distinct disease? Hormones (Athens, Greece). 2007;6(3):200–9.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Savio R, Gosnell J, Palazzo FF, Sywak M, Agarwal G, Cowell C, Shun A, Robinson B, Delbridge LW. The role of a more extensive surgical approach in the initial multimodality management of papillary thyroid cancer in children. J Pediatr Surg. 2005;40(11):1696–700.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Sywak M, Cornford L, Roach P, Stalberg P, Sidhu S, Delbridge L. Routine ipsilateral level VI lymphadenectomy reduces postoperative thyroglobulin levels in papillary thyroid cancer. Surgery. 2006;140(6):1000–5; discussion 1005-1007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Grubbs EG, Rich TA, Li G, Sturgis EM, Younes MN, Myers JN, Edeiken-Monroe B, Fornage BD, Monroe DP, Staerkel GA, et al. Recent advances in thyroid cancer. Curr Probl Surg. 2008;45(3):149–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Shen WT, Ogawa L, Ruan D, Suh I, Duh QY, Clark OH. Central neck lymph node dissection for papillary thyroid cancer: the reliability of surgeon judgment in predicting which patients will benefit. Surgery. 2010;148(2):398–403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Moo TA, Umunna B, Kato M, Butriago D, Kundel A, Lee JA, Zarnegar R, Fahey TJ 3rd. Ipsilateral versus bilateral central neck lymph node dissection in papillary thyroid carcinoma. Ann Surg. 2009;250(3):403–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Newman KD, Black T, Heller G, Azizkhan RG, Holcomb GW 3rd, Sklar C, Vlamis V, Haase GM, La Quaglia MP. Differentiated thyroid cancer: determinants of disease progression in patients <21 years of age at diagnosis: a report from the Surgical Discipline Committee of the Children’s Cancer Group. Ann Surg. 1998;227(4):533–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  158. Sosa JA, Bowman HM, Tielsch JM, Powe NR, Gordon TA, Udelsman R. The importance of surgeon experience for clinical and economic outcomes from thyroidectomy. Ann Surg. 1998;228(3):320–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  159. Burke JF, Sippel RS, Chen H. Evolution of pediatric thyroid surgery at a tertiary medical center. J Surg Res. 2012;177(2):268–74.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  160. Angelos P. Recurrent laryngeal nerve monitoring: state of the art, ethical and legal issues. Surg Clin North Am. 2009;89(5):1157–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Palmer BA, Zarroug AE, Poley RN, Kollars JP, Moir CR. Papillary thyroid carcinoma in children: risk factors and complications of disease recurrence. J Pediatr Surg. 2005;40(8):1284–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Popovtzer A, Shpitzer T, Bahar G, Feinmesser R, Segal K. Thyroid cancer in children: management and outcome experience of a referral center. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006;135(4):581–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Ji QH, Zhang L, Zhu YX, Huang CP. Long-term impact of initial surgical and medical therapy on young patients with papillary thyroid cancer and bilateral cervical metastases. Chin Med J. 2008;121(1):63–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Bargren AE, Meyer-Rochow GY, Delbridge LW, Sidhu SB, Chen H. Outcomes of surgically managed pediatric thyroid cancer. J Surg Res. 2009;156(1):70–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Raval MV, Browne M, Chin AC, Zimmerman D, Angelos P, Reynolds M. Total thyroidectomy for benign disease in the pediatric patient – feasible and safe. J Pediatr Surg. 2009;44(8):1529–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Spinelli C, Strambi S, Rossi L, Bakkar S, Massimino M, Ferrari A, Collini P, Cecchetto G, Bisogno G, Inserra A, et al. Surgical management of papillary thyroid carcinoma in childhood and adolescence: an Italian multicenter study on 250 patients. J Endocrinol Investig. 2016;39(9):1055–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Scholz S, Smith JR, Chaignaud B, Shamberger RC, Huang SA. Thyroid surgery at Children’s Hospital Boston: a 35-year single-institution experience. J Pediatr Surg. 2011;46(3):437–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Nobori M, Saiki S, Tanaka N, Harihara Y, Shindo S, Fujimoto Y. Blood supply of the parathyroid gland from the superior thyroid artery. Surgery. 1994;115(4):417–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Jumaily JS, Noordzij JP, Dukas AG, Lee SL, Bernet VJ, Payne RJ, McLeod IK, Hier MP, Black MJ, Kerr PD, et al. Prediction of hypocalcemia after using 1- to 6-hour postoperative parathyroid hormone and calcium levels: an analysis of pooled individual patient data from 3 observational studies. Head Neck. 2010;32(4):427–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. McLeod IK, Arciero C, Noordzij JP, Stojadinovic A, Peoples G, Melder PC, Langley R, Bernet V, Shriver CD. The use of rapid parathyroid hormone assay in predicting postoperative hypocalcemia after total or completion thyroidectomy. Thyroid. 2006;16(3):259–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Reeve T, Thompson NW. Complications of thyroid surgery: how to avoid them, how to manage them, and observations on their possible effect on the whole patient. World J Surg. 2000;24(8):971–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Mazzaferri EL, Kloos RT. Clinical review 128: current approaches to primary therapy for papillary and follicular thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(4):1447–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Durante C, Montesano T, Attard M, Torlontano M, Monzani F, Costante G, Meringolo D, Ferdeghini M, Tumino S, Lamartina L, et al. Long-term surveillance of papillary thyroid cancer patients who do not undergo postoperative radioiodine remnant ablation: is there a role for serum thyroglobulin measurement? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97(8):2748–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Nascimento C, Borget I, Troalen F, Al Ghuzlan A, Deandreis D, Hartl D, Lumbroso J, Chougnet CN, Baudin E, Schlumberger M, et al. Ultrasensitive serum thyroglobulin measurement is useful for the follow-up of patients treated with total thyroidectomy without radioactive iodine ablation. Eur J Endocrinol. 2013;169(5):689–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Torlontano M, Crocetti U, Augello G, D’Aloiso L, Bonfitto N, Varraso A, Dicembrino F, Modoni S, Frusciante V, Di Giorgio A, et al. Comparative evaluation of recombinant human thyrotropin-stimulated thyroglobulin levels, 131I whole-body scintigraphy, and neck ultrasonography in the follow-up of patients with papillary thyroid microcarcinoma who have not undergone radioiodine therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(1):60–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Lee JI, Chung YJ, Cho BY, Chong S, Seok JW, Park SJ. Postoperative-stimulated serum thyroglobulin measured at the time of 131I ablation is useful for the prediction of disease status in patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Surgery. 2013;153(6):828–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Antonelli A, Miccoli P, Fallahi P, Grosso M, Nesti C, Spinelli C, Ferrannini E. Role of neck ultrasonography in the follow-up of children operated on for thyroid papillary cancer. Thyroid. 2003;13(5):479–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Rosario PW, Mineiro Filho AF, Lacerda RX, dos Santos DA, Calsolari MR. The value of diagnostic whole-body scanning and serum thyroglobulin in the presence of elevated serum thyrotropin during follow-up of anti-thyroglobulin antibody-positive patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma who appeared to be free of disease after total thyroidectomy and radioactive iodine ablation. Thyroid. 2012;22(2):113–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Bal CS, Kumar A, Chandra P, Dwivedi SN, Mukhopadhyaya S. Is chest x-ray or high-resolution computed tomography scan of the chest sufficient investigation to detect pulmonary metastasis in pediatric differentiated thyroid cancer? Thyroid. 2004;14(3):217–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Barwick TD, Dhawan RT, Lewington V. Role of SPECT/CT in differentiated thyroid cancer. Nucl Med Commun. 2012;33(8):787–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Kim HY, Gelfand MJ, Sharp SE. SPECT/CT imaging in children with papillary thyroid carcinoma. Pediatr Radiol. 2011;41(8):1008–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Xue YL, Qiu ZL, Song HJ, Luo QY. Value of (1)(3)(1)I SPECT/CT for the evaluation of differentiated thyroid cancer: a systematic review of the literature. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2013;40(5):768–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Hurley JR. Management of thyroid cancer: radioiodine ablation, “stunning,” and treatment of thyroglobulin-positive, (131)I scan-negative patients. Endocr Pract. 2000;6(5):401–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Luster M, Lassmann M, Freudenberg LS, Reiners C. Thyroid cancer in childhood: management strategy, including dosimetry and long-term results. Hormones (Athens). 2007;6(4):269–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. Cohen JB, Kalinyak JE, McDougall IR. Clinical implications of the differences between diagnostic 123I and post-therapy 131I scans. Nucl Med Commun. 2004;25(2):129–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Schoelwer MJ, Zimmerman D, Shore RM, Josefson JL. The use of 123I in diagnostic radioactive iodine scans in children with differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid. 2015;25(8):935–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Jarzab B, Handkiewicz-Junak D, Wloch J. Juvenile differentiated thyroid carcinoma and the role of radioiodine in its treatment: a qualitative review. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2005;12(4):773–803.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Clayman GL, Shellenberger TD, Ginsberg LE, Edeiken BS, El-Naggar AK, Sellin RV, Waguespack SG, Roberts DB, Mishra A, Sherman SI. Approach and safety of comprehensive central compartment dissection in patients with recurrent papillary thyroid carcinoma. Head Neck. 2009;31(9):1152–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Clayman GL, Agarwal G, Edeiken BS, Waguespack SG, Roberts DB, Sherman SI. Long-term outcome of comprehensive central compartment dissection in patients with recurrent/persistent papillary thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid. 2011;21(12):1309–16.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  190. Brink JS, van Heerden JA, McIver B, Salomao DR, Farley DR, Grant CS, Thompson GB, Zimmerman D, Hay ID. Papillary thyroid cancer with pulmonary metastases in children: long-term prognosis. Surgery. 2000;128(6):881–6; discussion 886-887.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Pawelczak M, David R, Franklin B, Kessler M, Lam L, Shah B. Outcomes of children and adolescents with well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma and pulmonary metastases following (1)(3)(1)I treatment: a systematic review. Thyroid. 2010;20(10):1095–101.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Dottorini ME, Vignati A, Mazzucchelli L, Lomuscio G, Colombo L. Differentiated thyroid carcinoma in children and adolescents: a 37-year experience in 85 patients. J Nucl Med. 1997;38(5):669–75.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Samuel AM, Rajashekharrao B, Shah DH. Pulmonary metastases in children and adolescents with well-differentiated thyroid cancer. J Nucl Med. 1998;39(9):1531–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Padovani RP, Robenshtok E, Brokhin M, Tuttle RM. Even without additional therapy, serum thyroglobulin concentrations often decline for years after total thyroidectomy and radioactive remnant ablation in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid. 2012;22(8):778–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Chen L, Shen Y, Luo Q, Yu Y, Lu H, Zhu R. Pulmonary fibrosis following radioiodine therapy of pulmonary metastases from differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid. 2010;20(3):337–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Hebestreit H, Biko J, Drozd V, Demidchik Y, Burkhardt A, Trusen A, Beer M, Reiners C. Pulmonary fibrosis in youth treated with radioiodine for juvenile thyroid cancer and lung metastases after Chernobyl. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2011;38(9):1683–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Verburg FA, Reiners C, Hanscheid H. Approach to the patient: role of dosimetric RAI Rx in children with DTC. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(10):3912–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Mazzaferri EL, Robbins RJ, Spencer CA, Braverman LE, Pacini F, Wartofsky L, Haugen BR, Sherman SI, Cooper DS, Braunstein GD, et al. A consensus report of the role of serum thyroglobulin as a monitoring method for low-risk patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(4):1433–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Schlumberger M, Pacini F, Wiersinga WM, Toft A, Smit JW, Sanchez Franco F, Lind P, Limbert E, Jarzab B, Jamar F, et al. Follow-up and management of differentiated thyroid carcinoma: a European perspective in clinical practice. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004;151(5):539–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Kloos RT. Thyroid cancer recurrence in patients clinically free of disease with undetectable or very low serum thyroglobulin values. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95(12):5241–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Malandrino P, Latina A, Marescalco S, Spadaro A, Regalbuto C, Fulco RA, Scollo C, Vigneri R, Pellegriti G. Risk-adapted management of differentiated thyroid cancer assessed by a sensitive measurement of basal serum thyroglobulin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(6):1703–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Spencer C, Fatemi S, Singer P, Nicoloff J, Lopresti J. Serum basal thyroglobulin measured by a second-generation assay correlates with the recombinant human thyrotropin-stimulated thyroglobulin response in patients treated for differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid. 2010;20(6):587–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Castagna MG, Brilli L, Pilli T, Montanaro A, Cipri C, Fioravanti C, Sestini F, Capezzone M, Pacini F. Limited value of repeat recombinant human thyrotropin (rhTSH)-stimulated thyroglobulin testing in differentiated thyroid carcinoma patients with previous negative rhTSH-stimulated thyroglobulin and undetectable basal serum thyroglobulin levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(1):76–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Han JM, Kim WB, Yim JH, Kim WG, Kim TY, Ryu JS, Gong G, Sung TY, Yoon JH, Hong SJ, et al. Long-term clinical outcome of differentiated thyroid cancer patients with undetectable stimulated thyroglobulin level one year after initial treatment. Thyroid. 2012;22(8):784–90.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Klubo-Gwiezdzinska J, Burman KD, Van Nostrand D, Wartofsky L. Does an undetectable rhTSH-stimulated Tg level 12 months after initial treatment of thyroid cancer indicate remission? Clin Endocrinol. 2011;74(1):111–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Kloos RT, Mazzaferri EL. A single recombinant human thyrotropin-stimulated serum thyroglobulin measurement predicts differentiated thyroid carcinoma metastases three to five years later. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(9):5047–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Baudin E, Do Cao C, Cailleux AF, Leboulleux S, Travagli JP, Schlumberger M. Positive predictive value of serum thyroglobulin levels, measured during the first year of follow-up after thyroid hormone withdrawal, in thyroid cancer patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(3):1107–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Miyauchi A, Kudo T, Miya A, Kobayashi K, Ito Y, Takamura Y, Higashiyama T, Fukushima M, Kihara M, Inoue H, et al. Prognostic impact of serum thyroglobulin doubling-time under thyrotropin suppression in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma who underwent total thyroidectomy. Thyroid. 2011;21(7):707–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Schaadt B, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Rasmusson B, Torring H, Foder B, Jorgensen K, Hansen HS. Assessment of the influence of thyroglobulin (Tg) autoantibodies and other interfering factors on the use of serum Tg as tumor marker in differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid. 1995;5(3):165–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Schaap J, Eustatia-Rutten CF, Stokkel M, Links TP, Diamant M, van der Velde EA, Romijn JA, Smit JW. Does radioiodine therapy have disadvantageous effects in non-iodine accumulating differentiated thyroid carcinoma? Clin Endocrinol. 2002;57(1):117–24.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Dralle H, Gimm O, Simon D, Frank-Raue K, Gortz G, Niederle B, Wahl RA, Koch B, Walgenbach S, Hampel R, et al. Prophylactic thyroidectomy in 75 children and adolescents with hereditary medullary thyroid carcinoma: German and Austrian experience. World J Surg. 1998;22(7):744–50; discussion 750-741.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Spencer C. Commentary on: implications of thyroglobulin antibody positivity in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer: a clinical position statement. Thyroid. 2013;23(10):1190–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  213. Spencer CA. Clinical utility of thyroglobulin antibody (TgAb) measurements for patients with differentiated thyroid cancers (DTC). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(12):3615–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Verburg FA, Luster M, Cupini C, Chiovato L, Duntas L, Elisei R, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Rimmele H, Seregni E, Smit JW, et al. Implications of thyroglobulin antibody positivity in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer: a clinical position statement. Thyroid. 2013;23(10):1211–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Hoofnagle AN, Roth MY. Clinical review: improving the measurement of serum thyroglobulin with mass spectrometry. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(4):1343–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  216. Spencer C, Fatemi S. Thyroglobulin antibody (TgAb) methods – strengths, pitfalls and clinical utility for monitoring TgAb-positive patients with differentiated thyroid cancer. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;27(5):701–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Spencer CA, Takeuchi M, Kazarosyan M, Wang CC, Guttler RB, Singer PA, Fatemi S, LoPresti JS, Nicoloff JT. Serum thyroglobulin autoantibodies: prevalence, influence on serum thyroglobulin measurement, and prognostic significance in patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83(4):1121–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Gorges R, Maniecki M, Jentzen W, Sheu SN, Mann K, Bockisch A, Janssen OE. Development and clinical impact of thyroglobulin antibodies in patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma during the first 3 years after thyroidectomy. Eur J Endocrinol. 2005;153(1):49–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Kim WG, Yoon JH, Kim WB, Kim TY, Kim EY, Kim JM, Ryu JS, Gong G, Hong SJ, Shong YK. Change of serum antithyroglobulin antibody levels is useful for prediction of clinical recurrence in thyroglobulin-negative patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(12):4683–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Seo JH, Lee SW, Ahn BC, Lee J. Recurrence detection in differentiated thyroid cancer patients with elevated serum level of antithyroglobulin antibody: special emphasis on using (18)F-FDG PET/CT. Clin Endocrinol. 2010;72(4):558–63.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Kumar A, Shah DH, Shrihari U, Dandekar SR, Vijayan U, Sharma SM. Significance of antithyroglobulin autoantibodies in differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid. 1994;4(2):199–202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Chiovato L, Latrofa F, Braverman LE, Pacini F, Capezzone M, Masserini L, Grasso L, Pinchera A. Disappearance of humoral thyroid autoimmunity after complete removal of thyroid antigens. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139(5 Pt 1):346–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Kuijt WJ, Huang SA. Children with differentiated thyroid cancer achieve adequate hyperthyrotropinemia within 14 days of levothyroxine withdrawal. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(11):6123–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Pacini F, Schlumberger M, Dralle H, Elisei R, Smit JW, Wiersinga W, European Thyroid Cancer T. European consensus for the management of patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma of the follicular epithelium. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006;154(6):787–803.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Tuttle RM, Brokhin M, Omry G, Martorella AJ, Larson SM, Grewal RK, Fleisher M, Robbins RJ. Recombinant human TSH-assisted radioactive iodine remnant ablation achieves short-term clinical recurrence rates similar to those of traditional thyroid hormone withdrawal. J Nucl Med. 2008;49(5):764–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Hugo J, Robenshtok E, Grewal R, Larson S, Tuttle RM. Recombinant human thyroid stimulating hormone-assisted radioactive iodine remnant ablation in thyroid cancer patients at intermediate to high risk of recurrence. Thyroid. 2012;22(10):1007–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Hung W, Sarlis NJ. Current controversies in the management of pediatric patients with well-differentiated nonmedullary thyroid cancer: a review. Thyroid. 2002;12(8):683–702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Dinauer C, Francis GL. Thyroid cancer in children. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am. 2007;36(3):779–806. vii.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Benua RS, Cicale NR, Sonenberg M, Rawson RW. The relation of radioiodine dosimetry to results and complications in the treatment of metastatic thyroid cancer. Am J Roentgenol Radium Therapy, Nucl Med. 1962;87:171–82.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Tuttle RM, Leboeuf R, Robbins RJ, Qualey R, Pentlow K, Larson SM, Chan CY. Empiric radioactive iodine dosing regimens frequently exceed maximum tolerated activity levels in elderly patients with thyroid cancer. J Nucl Med. 2006;47(10):1587–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Lassmann M, Hanscheid H, Verburg FA, Luster M. The use of dosimetry in the treatment of differentiated thyroid cancer. Q J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2011;55(2):107–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Chen MK, Cheng DW. What is the role of dosimetry in patients with advanced thyroid cancer? Curr Opin Oncol. 2015;27(1):33–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Tuttle RM, Grewal RK, Larson SM. Radioactive iodine therapy in poorly differentiated thyroid cancer. Nat Clin Pract Oncol. 2007;4(11):665–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. Wang M, Wu WD, Chen GM, Chou SL, Dai XM, Xu JM, Peng ZH. Could tumor size be a predictor for papillary thyroid microcarcinoma: a retrospective cohort study. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2015;16(18):8625–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Pazaitou-Panayiotou K, Iliadou PK, Mandanas S, Vasileiadis T, Mitsakis P, Tziomalos K, Alevizaki M, Patakiouta F. Papillary thyroid carcinomas in patients under 21 years of age: clinical and histologic characteristics of tumors </=10 mm. J Pediatr. 2015;166(2):451–6. e452.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Wreesmann VB, Ghossein RA, Hezel M, Banerjee D, Shaha AR, Tuttle RM, Shah JP, Rao PH, Singh B. Follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma: genome-wide appraisal of a controversial entity. Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 2004;40(4):355–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. Fryknas M, Wickenberg-Bolin U, Goransson H, Gustafsson MG, Foukakis T, Lee JJ, Landegren U, Hoog A, Larsson C, Grimelius L, et al. Molecular markers for discrimination of benign and malignant follicular thyroid tumors. Tumour Biol. 2006;27(4):211–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Foukakis T, AY A, Wallin G, Geli J, Forsberg L, Clifton-Bligh R, Robinson BG, Lui WO, Zedenius J, Larsson C. The Ras effector NORE1A is suppressed in follicular thyroid carcinomas with a PAX8-PPARgamma fusion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(3):1143–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. McIver B, Grebe SK, Eberhardt NL. The PAX8/PPAR gamma fusion oncogene as a potential therapeutic target in follicular thyroid carcinoma. Curr Drug Targets. 2004;4(3):221–34.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Taylor T, Specker B, Robbins J, Sperling M, Ho M, Ain K, Bigos ST, Brierley J, Cooper D, Haugen B, et al. Outcome after treatment of high-risk papillary and non-Hurthle-cell follicular thyroid carcinoma. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129(8):622–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Grubbs EG, Rich TA, Li G, Sturgis EM, Younes MN, Myers JN, Edeiken-Monroe B, Fornage BD, Monroe DP, Staerkel GA, et al. Recent advances in thyroid cancer. Curr Probl Surg. 2008;45(3):156–250.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Asari R, Koperek O, Scheuba C, Riss P, Kaserer K, Hoffmann M, Niederle B. Follicular thyroid carcinoma in an iodine-replete endemic goiter region: a prospectively collected, retrospectively analyzed clinical trial. Ann Surg. 2009;249(6):1023–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  243. Zou CC, Zhao ZY, Liang L. Childhood minimally invasive follicular carcinoma: clinical features and immunohistochemistry analysis. J Paediatr Child Health. 2010;46(4):166–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  244. Ito Y, Miyauchi A, Tomoda C, Hirokawa M, Kobayashi K, Miya A. Prognostic significance of patient age in minimally and widely invasive follicular thyroid carcinoma: investigation of three age groups. Endocr J. 2014;61(3):265–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Enomoto K, Enomoto Y, Uchino S, Yamashita H, Noguchi S. Follicular thyroid cancer in children and adolescents: clinicopathologic features, long-term survival, and risk factors for recurrence. Endocr J. 2013;60(5):629–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Biondi B, Filetti S, Schlumberger M. Thyroid-hormone therapy and thyroid cancer: a reassessment. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2005;1(1):32–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Bauer AJ. Approach to the pediatric patient with Graves’ disease: when is definitive therapy warranted? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(3):580–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Rivkees SA. Pediatric Graves’ disease: controversies in management. Horm Res Paediatr. 2010;74(5):305–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Pacini F, Molinaro E, Castagna MG, Agate L, Elisei R, Ceccarelli C, Lippi F, Taddei D, Grasso L, Pinchera A. Recombinant human thyrotropin-stimulated serum thyroglobulin combined with neck ultrasonography has the highest sensitivity in monitoring differentiated thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(8):3668–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. Robbins RJ, Chon JT, Fleisher M, Larson SM, Tuttle RM. Is the serum thyroglobulin response to recombinant human thyrotropin sufficient, by itself, to monitor for residual thyroid carcinoma? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(7):3242–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Dadu R, Cabanillas ME. Optimizing therapy for radioactive iodine-refractory differentiated thyroid cancer: current state of the art and future directions. Minerva Endocrinol. 2012;37(4):335–56.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  252. Bannas P, Derlin T, Groth M, Apostolova I, Adam G, Mester J, Klutmann S. Can (18)F-FDG-PET/CT be generally recommended in patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma and elevated thyroglobulin levels but negative I-131 whole body scan? Ann Nucl Med. 2012;26(1):77–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  253. Dong MJ, Liu ZF, Zhao K, Ruan LX, Wang GL, Yang SY, Sun F, Luo XG. Value of 18F-FDG-PET/PET-CT in differentiated thyroid carcinoma with radioiodine-negative whole-body scan: a meta-analysis. Nucl Med Commun. 2009;30(8):639–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  254. Miller ME, Chen Q, Elashoff D, Abemayor E, St John M. Positron emission tomography and positron emission tomography-CT evaluation for recurrent papillary thyroid carcinoma: meta-analysis and literature review. Head Neck. 2011;33(4):562–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. Robbins RJ, Wan Q, Grewal RK, Reibke R, Gonen M, Strauss HW, Tuttle RM, Drucker W, Larson SM. Real-time prognosis for metastatic thyroid carcinoma based on 2-[18F]fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose-positron emission tomography scanning. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(2):498–505.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Armstrong S, Worsley D, Blair GK. Pediatric surgical images: PET evaluation of papillary thyroid carcinoma recurrence. J Pediatr Surg. 2002;37(11):1648–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Covell LL, Ganti AK. Treatment of advanced thyroid cancer: role of molecularly targeted therapies. Target Oncol. 2015;10(3):311–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Brose MS, Nutting CM, Jarzab B, Elisei R, Siena S, Bastholt L, de la Fouchardiere C, Pacini F, Paschke R, Shong YK, et al. Sorafenib in radioactive iodine-refractory, locally advanced or metastatic differentiated thyroid cancer: a randomised, double-blind, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2014;384(9940):319–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  259. Schlumberger M, Tahara M, Wirth LJ, Robinson B, Brose MS, Elisei R, Habra MA, Newbold K, Shah MH, Hoff AO, et al. Lenvatinib versus placebo in radioiodine-refractory thyroid cancer. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(7):621–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. Gruber JJ, Colevas AD. Differentiated thyroid cancer: focus on emerging treatments for radioactive iodine-refractory patients. Oncologist. 2015;20(2):113–26.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  261. Worden F. Treatment strategies for radioactive iodine-refractory differentiated thyroid cancer. Ther Adv Med Oncol. 2014;6(6):267–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  262. Weitzman SP, Cabanillas ME. The treatment landscape in thyroid cancer: a focus on cabozantinib. Cancer Manag Res. 2015;7:265–78.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  263. Kim A, Widemann BC, Krailo M, Jayaprakash N, Fox E, Weigel B, Blaney SM. Phase 2 trial of sorafenib in children and young adults with refractory solid tumors: a report from the Children’s Oncology Group. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2015;62(9):1562–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  264. Widemann BC, Kim A, Fox E, Baruchel S, Adamson PC, Ingle AM, Glade Bender J, Burke M, Weigel B, Stempak D, et al. A phase I trial and pharmacokinetic study of sorafenib in children with refractory solid tumors or leukemias: a Children’s Oncology Group Phase I Consortium report. Clin Cancer Res. 2012;18(21):6011–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  265. Iyer P, Mayer JL, Ewig JM. Response to sorafenib in a pediatric patient with papillary thyroid carcinoma with diffuse nodular pulmonary disease requiring mechanical ventilation. Thyroid. 2014;24(1):169–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Waguespack SG, Sherman SI, Williams MD, Clayman GL, Herzog CE. The successful use of sorafenib to treat pediatric papillary thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid. 2009;19(4):407–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Ho AL, Grewal RK, Leboeuf R, Sherman EJ, Pfister DG, Deandreis D, Pentlow KS, Zanzonico PB, Haque S, Gavane S, et al. Selumetinib-enhanced radioiodine uptake in advanced thyroid cancer. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(7):623–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  268. Carlson KM, Dou S, Chi D, Scavarda N, Toshima K, Jackson CE, Wells SA Jr, Goodfellow PJ, Donis-Keller H. Single missense mutation in the tyrosine kinase catalytic domain of the RET protooncogene is associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994;91(4):1579–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  269. Donis-Keller H, Dou S, Chi D, Carlson KM, Toshima K, Lairmore TC, Howe JR, Moley JF, Goodfellow P, Wells SA Jr. Mutations in the RET proto-oncogene are associated with MEN 2A and FMTC. Hum Mol Genet. 1993;2(7):851–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  270. Eng C, Clayton D, Schuffenecker I, Lenoir G, Cote G, Gagel RF, van Amstel HK, Lips CJ, Nishisho I, Takai SI, et al. The relationship between specific RET proto-oncogene mutations and disease phenotype in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. International RET mutation consortium analysis. JAMA. 1996;276(19):1575–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  271. Hofstra RM, Landsvater RM, Ceccherini I, Stulp RP, Stelwagen T, Luo Y, Pasini B, Hoppener JW, van Amstel HK, Romeo G, et al. A mutation in the RET proto-oncogene associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B and sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma. Nature. 1994;367(6461):375–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  272. Margraf RL, Crockett DK, Krautscheid PM, Seamons R, Calderon FR, Wittwer CT, Mao R. Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 RET protooncogene database: repository of MEN2-associated RET sequence variation and reference for genotype/phenotype correlations. Hum Mutat. 2009;30(4):548–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  273. Mulligan LM, Kwok JB, Healey CS, Elsdon MJ, Eng C, Gardner E, Love DR, Mole SE, Moore JK, Papi L, et al. Germ-line mutations of the RET proto-oncogene in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. Nature. 1993;363(6428):458–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  274. Waguespack SG, Rich TA, Perrier ND, Jimenez C, Cote GJ. Management of medullary thyroid carcinoma and MEN2 syndromes in childhood. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2011;7(10):596–607.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Frank-Raue K, Raue F. Hereditary medullary thyroid cancer genotype-phenotype correlation. Recent Results Cancer Res. 2015;204:139–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  276. Baloch ZW, LiVolsi VA. C-cells and their associated lesions and conditions: a pathologists perspective. Turk Patoloji Derg. 2015;31(Suppl 1):60–79.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  277. Machens A, Niccoli-Sire P, Hoegel J, Frank-Raue K, van Vroonhoven TJ, Roeher HD, Wahl RA, Lamesch P, Raue F, Conte-Devolx B, et al. Early malignant progression of hereditary medullary thyroid cancer. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(16):1517–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. Wolfe HJ, Melvin KE, Cervi-Skinner SJ, Saadi AA, Juliar JF, Jackson CE, Tashjian AH Jr. C-cell hyperplasia preceding medullary thyroid carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 1973;289(9):437–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. Brandi ML, Gagel RF, Angeli A, Bilezikian JP, Beck-Peccoz P, Bordi C, Conte-Devolx B, Falchetti A, Gheri RG, Libroia A, et al. Guidelines for diagnosis and therapy of MEN type 1 and type 2. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(12):5658–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  280. Kloos RT, Eng C, Evans DB, Francis GL, Gagel RF, Gharib H, Moley JF, Pacini F, Ringel MD, Schlumberger M, et al. Medullary thyroid cancer: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid. 2009;19(6):565–612.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  281. Brauckhoff M, Machens A, Lorenz K, Bjoro T, Varhaug JE, Dralle H. Surgical curability of medullary thyroid cancer in multiple endocrine neoplasia 2B: a changing perspective. Ann Surg. 2014;259(4):800–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  282. Frohnauer MK, Decker RA. Update on the MEN 2A c804 RET mutation: is prophylactic thyroidectomy indicated? Surgery. 2000;128(6):1052–7;discussion 1057–1058.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  283. Mukherjee S, Zakalik D. RET codon 804 mutations in multiple endocrine neoplasia 2: genotype-phenotype correlations and implications in clinical management. Clin Genet. 2011;79(1):1–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  284. Steiner AL, Goodman AD, Powers SR. Study of a kindred with pheochromocytoma, medullary thyroid carcinoma, hyperparathyroidism and Cushing’s disease: multiple endocrine neoplasia, type 2. Medicine (Baltimore). 1968;47(5):371–409.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  285. Machens A, Lorenz K, Dralle H. Constitutive RET tyrosine kinase activation in hereditary medullary thyroid cancer: clinical opportunities. J Intern Med. 2009;266(1):114–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  286. Romei C, Tacito A, Molinaro E, Agate L, Bottici V, Viola D, Matrone A, Biagini A, Casella F, Ciampi R, et al. Twenty years of lesson learning: how does the RET genetic screening test impact the clinical management of medullary thyroid cancer? Clin Endocrinol. 2015;82(6):892–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  287. Frank-Raue K, Rondot S, Raue F. Molecular genetics and phenomics of RET mutations: impact on prognosis of MTC. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2010;322(1–2):2–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. Rich TA, Feng L, Busaidy N, Cote GJ, Gagel RF, Hu M, Jimenez C, Lee JE, Perrier N, Sherman SI, et al. Prevalence by age and predictors of medullary thyroid cancer in patients with lower risk germline RET proto-oncogene mutations. Thyroid. 2014;24(7):1096–106.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  289. Brauckhoff M, Gimm O, Weiss CL, Ukkat J, Sekulla C, Brauckhoff K, Thanh PN, Dralle H. Multiple endocrine neoplasia 2B syndrome due to codon 918 mutation: clinical manifestation and course in early and late onset disease. World J Surg. 2004;28(12):1305–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Brauckhoff M, Machens A, Hess S, Lorenz K, Gimm O, Brauckhoff K, Sekulla C, Dralle H. Premonitory symptoms preceding metastatic medullary thyroid cancer in MEN 2B: an exploratory analysis. Surgery. 2008;144(6):1044–50; discussion 1050-1043.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  291. Carney JA, Bianco AJ Jr, Sizemore GW, Hayles AB. Multiple endocrine neoplasia with skeletal manifestations. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1981;63(3):405–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  292. O’Riordain DS, O’Brien T, Crotty TB, Gharib H, Grant CS, van Heerden JA. Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B: more than an endocrine disorder. Surgery. 1995;118(6):936–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  293. Jasim S, Ying AK, Waguespack SG, Rich TA, Grubbs EG, Jimenez C, MI H, Cote G, Habra MA. Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B with a RET proto-oncogene A883F mutation displays a more indolent form of medullary thyroid carcinoma compared with a RET M918T mutation. Thyroid. 2011;21(2):189–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  294. Frank-Raue K, Buhr H, Dralle H, Klar E, Senninger N, Weber T, Rondot S, Hoppner W, Raue F. Long-term outcome in 46 gene carriers of hereditary medullary thyroid carcinoma after prophylactic thyroidectomy: impact of individual RET genotype. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006;155(2):229–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. Rohmer V, Vidal-Trecan G, Bourdelot A, Niccoli P, Murat A, Wemeau JL, Borson-Chazot F, Schvartz C, Tabarin A, Chabre O, et al. Prognostic factors of disease-free survival after thyroidectomy in 170 young patients with a RET germline mutation: a multicenter study of the Groupe Francais d’Etude des Tumeurs Endocrines. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(3):E509–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Skinner MA, Moley JA, Dilley WG, Owzar K, Debenedetti MK, Wells SA Jr. Prophylactic thyroidectomy in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(11):1105–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  297. Waguespack SG, Rich TA. Multiple endocrine neoplasia [corrected] syndrome type 2B in early childhood: long-term benefit of prophylactic thyroidectomy. Cancer. 2010;116(9):2284.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  298. Morris LF, Waguespack SG, Edeiken-Monroe BS, Lee JE, Rich TA, Ying AK, Warneke CL, Evans DB, Perrier ND, Grubbs EG. Ultrasonography should not guide the timing of thyroidectomy in pediatric patients diagnosed with multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome 2A through genetic screening. Ann Surg Oncol. 2013;20(1):53–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  299. Zenaty D, Aigrain Y, Peuchmaur M, Philippe-Chomette P, Baumann C, Cornelis F, Hugot JP, Chevenne D, Barbu V, Guillausseau PJ, et al. Medullary thyroid carcinoma identified within the first year of life in children with hereditary multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A (codon 634) and 2B. Eur J Endocrinol. 2009;160(5):807–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  300. O’Riordain DS, O’Brien T, Weaver AL, Gharib H, Hay ID, Grant CS, van Heerden JA. Medullary thyroid carcinoma in multiple endocrine neoplasia types 2A and 2B. Surgery. 1994;116(6):1017–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  301. Modigliani E, Cohen R, Campos JM, Conte-Devolx B, Maes B, Boneu A, Schlumberger M, Bigorgne JC, Dumontier P, Leclerc L, et al. Prognostic factors for survival and for biochemical cure in medullary thyroid carcinoma: results in 899 patients. The GETC Study Group. Groupe d’etude des tumeurs a calcitonine. Clin Endocrinol. 1998;48(3):265–73.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  302. Leboulleux S, Travagli JP, Caillou B, Laplanche A, Bidart JM, Schlumberger M, Baudin E. Medullary thyroid carcinoma as part of a multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B syndrome: influence of the stage on the clinical course. Cancer. 2002;94(1):44–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  303. Wray CJ, Rich TA, Waguespack SG, Lee JE, Perrier ND, Evans DB. Failure to recognize multiple endocrine neoplasia 2B: more common than we think? Ann Surg Oncol. 2008;15(1):293–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  304. Abi-Raad R, Virk RK, Dinauer CA, Prasad A, Morotti RA, Breuer CK, Sosa JA, Udelsman R, Rivkees SA, Prasad ML. C-cell neoplasia in asymptomatic carriers of RET mutation in extracellular cysteine-rich and intracellular tyrosine kinase domain. Hum Pathol. 2015;46(8):1121–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  305. Lifante JC, Blanchard C, Mirallie E, David A, Peix JL. Role of preoperative basal calcitonin levels in the timing of prophylactic thyroidectomy in patients with germline RET mutations. World J Surg. 2014;38(3):576–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  306. Pelizzo MR, Torresan F, Boschin IM, Nacamulli D, Pennelli G, Barollo S, Rubello D, Mian C. Early, prophylactic thyroidectomy in hereditary medullary thyroid carcinoma: a 26-year monoinstitutional experience. Am J Clin Oncol. 2015;38(5):508–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  307. Giraudet AL, Vanel D, Leboulleux S, Auperin A, Dromain C, Chami L, Ny Tovo N, Lumbroso J, Lassau N, Bonniaud G, et al. Imaging medullary thyroid carcinoma with persistent elevated calcitonin levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(11):4185–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  308. Laure Giraudet A, Al Ghulzan A, Auperin A, Leboulleux S, Chehboun A, Troalen F, Dromain C, Lumbroso J, Baudin E, Schlumberger M. Progression of medullary thyroid carcinoma: assessment with calcitonin and carcinoembryonic antigen doubling times. Eur J Endocrinol. 2008;158(2):239–46.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  309. Fox E, Widemann BC, Chuk MK, Marcus L, Aikin A, Whitcomb PO, Merino MJ, Lodish M, Dombi E, Steinberg SM, et al. Vandetanib in children and adolescents with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B associated medullary thyroid carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res. 2013;19(15):4239–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  310. Robbins RJ, Srivastava S, Shaha A, Ghossein R, Larson SM, Fleisher M, Tuttle RM. Factors influencing the basal and recombinant human thyrotropin-stimulated serum thyroglobulin in patients with metastatic thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(12):6010–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Thyroid Center; Pediatrics, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Andrew J. Bauer MD

  2. Endocrine Neoplasia and Hormonal Disorders, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA

    Steven G. Waguespack MD, FAAP, FACE

  3. Department of Surgical Oncology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Massey Cancer Center, Richmond, VA, USA

    Amelia Grover MD

  4. Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Richmond at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA

    Gary L. Francis MD, PhD

Authors
  1. Andrew J. Bauer MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Steven G. Waguespack MD, FAAP, FACE
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Amelia Grover MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Gary L. Francis MD, PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gary L. Francis MD, PhD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA

    Sally Radovick

  2. Pediatric Endocrinology, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Madhusmita Misra

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Bauer, A.J., Waguespack, S.G., Grover, A., Francis, G.L. (2018). Thyroid Neoplasia. In: Radovick, S., Misra, M. (eds) Pediatric Endocrinology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73782-9_21

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73782-9_21

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-73781-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-73782-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation