Abstract
The city of Bengaluru has outgrown in terms of the proportion of population and geography with profound impacts on both the physical and natural resource use. A combination of factors such as urbanisation, migration, urban poverty, complex institutions and so on have a tremendous impact on how the city is coping up with varied urban-related and environmental challenges. Urban environmental quality is one of the significant factors associated with the ability of the city to promote environmental governance. Therefore, this chapter presents an analysis of the trends and status of environmental resource use across different sectors such as water supply, sanitation, solid waste, urban ecology, etc., in the Bengaluru Metropolitan Area (BMA). The analysis is based on the methodology developed to assess the current environmental status of the city. The purpose is to illustrate an overview of better or worse conditions across different urban sectors that affect environment and ecology of the city.
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Notes
- 1.
Between the months of July–August and October, the mean annual rainfall is around 875 mm spread over 50 days in a year. The city also receives cyclone-induced rainfall between the months of November and December (GoK 2009: 1).
- 2.
Outdoor pollution due to an increase in vehicular traffic, number of vehicles and industrial pollution has infected the city with pollen, dust mites, fungi and irritants like tobacco and cleaning agents leading to various kinds of respiratory illness like asthma, bronchitis wheezing, irritation to eyes, etc.
- 3.
Water supply, sanitation (toilets, sewerage and UGD), solid waste management, land use change, urban transport, energy and urban wetlands (lakes and tanks).
- 4.
The Economic Times (2006). Jurisdictions of authorities defined, 28th January. Visit the link (http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2006-01-28/news/27447719_1_jurisdiction-villages-layouts).
- 5.
The city of Bengaluru registered a population growth of 4.10% in 2001 and 4.75% in 2011 and is expected to register a population growth of 5.52% by 2021 (BBMP 2006: 57).
- 6.
The new amalgamation constitutes Bengaluru Metropolitan Region (BMR). The local governance was reconstituted as Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) in 2007.
- 7.
River Cauvery’s supply constitutes 1400 MLD which equals to 18 TMC, serving the entire urban population of Bengaluru (Balasubramanian (2013).
- 8.
Hedge and Chandra (2012): Resource availability for water supply to Bengaluru City, Karnataka, Current Science, 102(8): 1102–1104
- 9.
Access http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Crisis/Urbanwater-scenario.htm for details on demand and supply gap presented in Fig. 6.2.
- 10.
The merged areas comprise 54 wards with a population of more than 2 lakh (The Hindu 2012).
- 11.
Details collected during an interview with the Chairman and Executive Engineers of BWSSB, on April 9, 2014.
- 12.
The drinking water pipeline network of 7500 km carries water to 6.1 lakh households (The Hindu 2012).
- 13.
Citizen Matter (2013): Where does Bengaluru get its water from? Citizen Matter Desk. Access the following link: http://bangalore.citizenmatters.in/articles/5306-understanding-bengalurus-water-sources-cauvery-groundwater-borewells-rainwater).
- 14.
The actual quantity of water supply has considerably declined from 145 lpcd in 1995 to 75 lpcd in 2007 (GoK 2009: 87).
- 15.
Details collected during an interview with the Chairman and Executive Engineers, BWSSB, on 9th April, 2014.
- 16.
The geographical area of the city has expanded to 2190 of sq.kms following the inclusion of 3 taluks, i.e. Bengaluru north, Bengaluru south and Anekal, with a population of 6.5 million and a total of 1285 villages (Anand et al. 2006: 330).
- 17.
Visit the BWSSB’s webpage for more information (http://bwssb.org/water-supply-sources-shortage/).
- 18.
In 2006, 3568 borewells supplied 56.74 mld of water to households located in 7 CMCs, 1 TMC and 110 villages of Bengaluru Metropolitan region (Anand et al. 2006: 331).
- 19.
The volume of water supplied during off season (January–February) is estimated at 95.76 mld, and during summer the supply increases to 227.16 mld (Anand et al. 2006: 335).
- 20.
There are absolutely no official records for keeping track of such informal and private water markets in Bengaluru City.
- 21.
Unaccounted for water refers to the difference of water between the actual water produced minus water consumed and water in store.
- 22.
By February 2010, the total number of RWHs in the BMR came to 10,072 (www.rainwaterclub.org).
- 23.
As per the law, ‘every building with a plinth area of exceeding 100 sq. mtrs and built on a site measuring not less than 200 sq. mtrs shall have one or more rainwater harvesting structures having a minimum total capacity as detailed in the Schedule’ (Ravi 2005).
- 24.
Visit www.rainwaterclub.org for details on RWH in the city.
- 25.
Visit http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Crisis/Urbanwater-scenario.htm for details on water scarcity in Bengaluru.
- 26.
Constituting east, west, north, south and south-east regions.
- 27.
According to the ‘Ground Water Estimation’ report (2011), Taluks sucked are Doddaballapur, Hoskote, Nelamangala and Devanahalli in Bengaluru Rural District; Anekal and Bengaluru East, North and South taluks in Bengaluru Urban district; Chikkaballapur, Chintamani, Gauribidanur, Gudibande and Sidlaghatta taluks in Chikkaballapur district; and Bangarpet, Kolar, Malur, Mulbagal and Srinivasapura taluks in Kolar district. Ban drilling of borewells (Mukherjee 2014).
- 28.
Peenya Industrial Area, Nandini Layout, Kamakshipalya, Industrial Area, Rajajinagar Industrial Area, Mysore Road, Nagarabhavi 1st Stage, Mahadevapura, Thimmpasandra, Vittasandra, Doddavangala, Bellandur village, Shampura, Bharathinagar and Geddlahalli. High nitrate concentrations are also found in Sulthanpalya, Cholanayakanahalli, Hebbal, Srirampura, Doddabanaswadi, Jayanagar 4th Block and Banashankari.
- 29.
These samples are tested against 15 parameters namely calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, total iron, carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, nitrate, sulphate, total dissolved solids, specific conductance, hardness, fluoride and PH.
- 30.
The demand works out to be 1200 MLD, at the standard rate of 200 lpcd set by the Bureau of Indian Standards [BIS] for water supply in urban areas.
- 31.
Recently in 2013 it was found that 51 units had not obtained the required permission and license as per the ISI and BIS norms.
- 32.
- 33.
The city’s lakes were for the first time gazetted from 1988 with the commissioning of N Lakshman Rau, Committee.
- 34.
Details of Lakes were collected during an interview with Mr. Sivanna, Chief Executive Officer, LDA, on April 24, 2014.
- 35.
The Lake Development Authority (LDA), an autonomous body, was constituted in 2002 as the nodal agency for the convergence of BBMP, BDA, BWSSB, BMRDA, Zilla Panchayat and Department of Forest (GoK 2009: 64). The main aim of the LDA is to reinvigorate and rejuvenate the existing lakes within BMR, thereby boosting aquifers and protecting biodiversity of water bodies.
- 36.
Details regarding lake rejuvenation were collected in an interview with Mr. Shivashankar, EOI, Dept of Town Planning, BDA, Bengaluru, on April 25 2014.
- 37.
Data on urban lakes in Bengaluru was collected from Lake Dept., BBMP, Bengaluru. An interview was held with Mr. B.V. Satish, Chief Engineer, BBMP, Bengaluru, on May 20, 2014.
- 38.
- 39.
A Tripartite Agreement has been reached between BBMP-RWAs-IT/corporate sector and local councilors for maintenance of urban lakes.
- 40.
Data collected from Dept of Lakes, BBMP, Bengaluru, May 2014.
- 41.
Interview with Shivanna, Chief Executive Officer, LDA, Bengaluru, on April 25, 2014. Kunte means ‘small water body’.
- 42.
Sanitation constitutes access to toilets, sewerage and drainage facilities.
- 43.
Bengaluru Agenda Task Force (BATF) implemented ‘Nirmala Bengaluru’, by way of constructing pay-and-use public toilets.
- 44.
- 45.
Bengaluru Agenda Task Force (BATF) implemented ‘Nirmala Bengaluru’, by way of constructing pay-and-use public toilets.
- 46.
- 47.
e-Toilets are made out of stainless steel with a coin-operated entry system. They consist of an auto-flush and floor wash system. These toilets have a battery with an inbuilt water tank.
- 48.
The Kerala State Women’s Development Corporation (KSWDC) has bagged the prestigious World CSR Congress Responsible Business Award 2014 for promoting the user friendly ‘she toilets’ for women.
- 49.
Interview with Joint Commissioner, Solid Waste Unit, BBMP, Bengaluru, May 20, 2014.
- 50.
Ragpickers play a significant part in the economy of recycling process in India (Ramachandra and Bachamanda n.d.: 40).
- 51.
Data collected from Solid Waste Unit, BBMP, Bengaluru.
- 52.
BMW (infectious waste) is defined as a solid waste which is generated during diagnosis, testing, treatment, research and production of biological products for humans and animals. It includes needles, syringes, laboratory samples, cultures, live vaccines, bodily fluids and so on.
- 53.
The Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike will use plastic waste to asphalt over 40% of the roads under a World Bank scheme (Yasmeen 2005).
- 54.
Visit the article titled ‘Cleaning E-wasteland: Cerebra will extract precious and other metals from mountains of e-waste (http://businesstoday.intoday.in/story/companies-that-are-making-wealth-from-waste/1/195163.html).
- 55.
The ASSOCHAM report (2013) states that Indian organised e-waste market for 2012 was from the order of Rs. 1 billion to Rs. 2 billion. There are around 72 formal e-waste recycling units in India with a recycling capacity of 1.75 lakh tones per annum (Deccan Herald 2013).
- 56.
The slaughter houses come under the purview of the animal husbandry division of the Ministry of Agriculture mainly for the purpose of funding the expansion and modernisation activities (www.urbanindia.nic.in).
- 57.
Visit Indiatimes.com for an article titled ‘BBP needs slaughterhouse’, October 2, 2010. (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-02/bangalore/28269036_1_slaughterhouse-salmonella-intensive-care).
- 58.
Refer the article titled ‘Slaughterhouse waste posing health hazard’, August 28, 2014. Access the link www.dnaindia.com
- 59.
The entire Bengaluru metropolitan region has been classified into five zones, namely (i) core area, (ii) pericentral area, (iii) recent extensions, (iv) new layouts and (v) green belt and agriculture areas (BBMP 2006: 16).
- 60.
According to the plan, metropolitan area drawn for 1984 covered an area of 1279 sq.km that included the conurbation area of 440 sq.km (Ravindra 1996: 57).
- 61.
The APZs and IZs serve as simple tools for land planning and maximising the utilisation of the existing and available infrastructure and also for minimising the need for conversion of agriculture land to urbanisation (BMRDA 2009: 116).
- 62.
For instance, Katta Subramanya Naidu and his son Katta, MLA Ashok Kumar, B.S. Yedurappa and his sons and S.N. Krihnayya Shetty and others were involved in land scams (Mondal 2013).
- 63.
The Karnataka Parks, Play-fields and Open Spaces (Preservation and Regulation) Act, 1985, says that the local authority should publicise information about these spaces annually in the gazette and made available to public (Navya 2011).
- 64.
Refer BDA (2007): Revised Master Plan 2015: Zoning Regulation, Volume 3, Bengaluru: Bengaluru Development Authority.
- 65.
Refer annexure on the decline of urban parks in the city by 2001.
- 66.
Bengaluru parks are rich in species with 80 species, recorded from 127 plots of 0.25 ha, each containing 1423 species (Harini and Gopal 2003).
- 67.
Some of the details were collected from the Chief Forest Officer, BBMP, Bengaluru, on May 20, 2014.
- 68.
The different types of roads in Bangalore city are Ring Roads (Core Ring Road (CRR), Outer Ring Road (ORR), Peripheral Ring Road (PRR), Intermediate Ring Road (IRR) and Satellite Township Ring Road (STRR)), expressways (Airport Link Road), highways (national highways, state highways), arterial roads, sub-arterial roads and other link roads.
- 69.
Bengaluru comes next to New Delhi in terms of having the most number of vehicles per person (32 vehicles per 100 people) (BDA 2007: 38).
- 70.
Those commuting by cars have almost doubled from 6.7% in 2005 to 12% by 2011 (CSD 2012: 34).
- 71.
At present, 2000 MW is supplied by private power suppliers and another 250 MW to be integrated into the grid (The Hindu 2012c).
- 72.
Karnataka’s average demand comes to 6000 MW per day (Navya 2012).
- 73.
Details collected during an interview with Mr. Malleshappa, Operation, BESCOM Corporate Office, Bengaluru, on April 25, 2014.
- 74.
Not even 20 Indian cities follow Euro 4 emission standards for new vehicles, but most follow Euro 3. Euro 4 is 7 years behind European standards, and Euro 3 is behind by 12 years (Hindustan Times 2013).
- 75.
A study by CSD (2011) states that ‘Air pollution is concentration of interactions between variations in the physical and dynamic properties of the atmosphere on time-scales from hours to days, atmospheric circulation features, wind, topography and energy use’.
- 76.
In 1981 Air Act was enacted to check the problem of air pollution. The Comprehensive Environment Act (1986) also monitors air quality in Bengaluru City.
- 77.
Access the link for full details on the air quality study (http://www.cseindia.org/node/207).
- 78.
Which exceeds National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQMS) for sensitive areas of 70 ug/m3 and exceeds even the limit for industrial areas of 360 ug/m3.
- 79.
Access (http://kspcb.kar.nic.in/breathing_level.pdf) for more details on the study.
- 80.
The three main sources of methane emission are (i) solid waste, (ii) domestic waste water and (iii) industrial waste water. CH4 emissions are due to the decomposition of waste in anaerobic condition and N2O emissions from domestic waste water due to its protein content (EMPRI and TERI 2011: 127).
- 81.
Due to indoor air pollution, India accounts for 28% of deaths in the world which is attributed mainly to the use of domestic firewood in rural households (World Bank 2000).
- 82.
Ambient air quality standards are prescribed with respect to noise levels of industries, commercial, silent and residential zones under The Environment Protection Act 1986, Schedule II (CSD 2009a, b: 5). Similarly, noise standards for automobiles, domestic appliances and construction equipment have been notified in Part ‘E’, Schedule VI of Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, as amended on May 19, 1993 (CSD 2009a, b: 9).
- 83.
State of Environment Report, Bengaluru, 2008.
- 84.
The permissible limit is 50 decibels.
- 85.
As specified by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the permissible ambient noise levels in residential areas are 55 dB (A) during daytime from 6 am to 10 pm and 45 dB during night from 10 pm to 6 am (GoK 2009: 151).
- 86.
As against developed countries contributing 47% of global CO2 emissions, the developing countries generate only 25% of the per capita emissions of the developed countries. In fact, three developed countries, namely Australia, the USA and Canada, account for the highest per capita CO2 emissions (UNHSP 2011: 9).
- 87.
In 2007, the Government of Karnataka (GoK) issued a notification for the merger of 7 CMCs, 1 TMC and 110 villages with the erstwhile Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BMP) area. The process was completed between April and May 2007, and BBMP came into existence (BBMP 2006: 24).
- 88.
Open spaces constitute play grounds, parks and vacant lands.
- 89.
Dr. T.V. Ramachardra, lead researcher, Centre for Ecological Sciences of the Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, observes that an increase of 466% in the built-up area over the past 3 years (from 2009) is not allowing water, both domestic and drainage, to percolate through the soil (Jayashree 2009).
- 90.
As per the International Energy Agency, buildings account for 40% of the total energy consumption and 24% of greenhouse gas emissions in the world (UN-HABITAT 2010: 21).
- 91.
Conversion of Agricultural land to nonagricultural purposes amounts to the violation of the Karnataka Land Reforms Act and Karnataka Land Revenue Act (Ramachandra and Mujumdar undated).
- 92.
The case of Mavallipura landfill site involving the local community’s struggle has been documented by the Environmental Support Group (ESG) which is also a partner in the struggle.
- 93.
Details of which were collected through discussions with Koramangala Residential Welfare Association.
- 94.
Most stores are concentrated in Jayanagar, J.P. Nagar and Bannerghatta Road in the south; in Rajajinagar, Malleshwaram and Dollars Colony in the north; and Whitefield, Indiranagar and Koramangala in the east (Bhumik 2013).
- 95.
The city each year conducts international organic trade fair earning business transaction worth Rs. 17.5 crore (for the year 2012) (Kumar 2012).
- 96.
PNLIT has been actively working with Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) towards rejuvenation and maintenance of Puttenahalli Lake, JP Nagar 7th Phase, Bengaluru. Visit the following link for more details on the Puttenahalli Lake: (http://www.puttenahallilake.in/).
- 97.
Visit www.agaralake.org.
- 98.
Access the article on Konanakunte Ward No 195 which is known for 100% segregation. (http://bangalore.citizenmatters.in/blogs/community-matters/blog_posts/volunteer-to-make-segregation-at-source-happen-at-konanakunte-ward).
- 99.
See article on ‘I own a tree’ campaign to save Bengaluru’s greenery’, November 19 2009, The Hindu. (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/i-own-a-tree-campaign-to-save-bangalores-greenery/article50524.ece).
- 100.
Information on ENVIS is available on http://envis.frlht.org/.
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Raju, K.V., Ravindra, A., Manasi, S., Smitha, K.C., Srinivas, R. (2018). Trends and Status of Environmental Resource Use in Bengaluru Metropolitan Area (BMA). In: Urban Environmental Governance in India. The Urban Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73468-2_6
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