Evolution-Based Ethical Challenges Related to Group Relations

Cliquet, Robert; Avramov, Dragana

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-73090-5_7

Robert Cliquet^3,4 &
Dragana Avramov⁵

358 Accesses

Abstract

In this chapter four major categories of group relations are addressed, which are based on: (1) kin and family; (2) social status; (3) race, ethnicity, worldview, or political conviction; and (4) statehood. The evolutionary background, developments in modernity and ethical reflections for the future are discussed for each of them. Family relations are discussed in the broadest possible meaning, in order to include all variants appearing in modernity. The evolutionary origin of the family is explained, the changes that families experience in modernity are sketched, and ethical reflections for the future are suggested. The evolutionary heritage and modern changes of our drives for status achievement, egalitarianism, and distaste for relative deprivation are described. Major ethical forward looking aspects in the evolutionary perspective are presented. Competition with respect to social disparities based on race, ethnicity, worldview or political conviction are highlighted in their common evolutionary background grounded in the in-group/out-group syndrome. Regarding relations between states, the evolutionary heritage of intergroup conflict leading to present day governance systems is recalled. Ethical aspects of international relations that represent challenges for the future are identified.

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Notes

1.
Classism: prejudice or discrimination based on social class.
2.
For instance, Ditch et al. (1995), Zonabend (1996).
3.
Gough (1971), Van den Berghe (1979), Mellen (1981), Emlen (1995), Chapais (2008), Gorelik et al. (2010).
4.
Van den Berghe (1988, 43).
5.
Gough (1971), Van den Berghe (1979), Mellen (1981), Emlen (1995), Bellah (2011, 104).
6.
Van den Berghe (1979), Filsinger (1988), Booth et al. (2000), Salmon and Shackelford (2007).
7.
Westermarck (1921), Barber (1995).
8.
Gangestad and Buss (1993), Singh (1993), Buss (1994), Perrett et al. (1999), Shackelford and Larsen (1999), Thornhill and Grammer (1999), Honekopp et al. (2004), Roberts and Little (2008), Craig and Little (2008).
9.
Trivers (1972).
10.
Alexander and Noonan (1979).
11.
Barber (1995).
12.
Buss (1994, 2007).
13.
Fisher (1930), Williams (1975).
14.
Nieschlag (1986).
15.
Eaton and Mayer (1953), Charbonneau (1979).
16.
Singh (1993), Hughes and Gallup (2003), Streeter and McBurney (2003).
17.
Howell (1979), Buss (1989), Wiederman and Allgeier (1992), Ridley (1993), Thiessen et al. (1993), Bereczkei and Csanaky (1996), Wiederman and Kendall (1999).
18.
Daly and Wilson (1978).
19.
Platek and Shackelford (2006).
20.
Dickemann (1979), Daly et al. (1982), Betzig (1989), Batten (1992), Buss (2002), Perilloux (2008).
21.
For instance, Bonneux et al. (1998).
22.
Medawar (1952).
23.
Williams (1957), Hill and Hurtado (1991).
24.
Coall and Hertwig (2010).
25.
For instance, Caldwell (1982), Lee (1997).
26.
Hamilton, 1964.
27.
Trivers, 1971.
28.
For instance, Cicirelli (1991).
29.
The word nepotism derives from the Italian ‘nipoti’ which refers to any family descendent; in Latin ‘nepos’ stood for grandson or nephew.
30.
Van den Berghe (1978), Alexander (1979), Bellow (2003).
31.
Hamilton (1963; 1964), Maynard Smith (1964).
32.
Newson and Richerson (2009).
33.
Cliquet (2003), Avramov and Cliquet (2005).
34.
Bozon and Kontula (1997, 1998).
35.
Kiernan (1993), Sardon (2002).
36.
Deven and Cliquet (1986), Sardon (2002).
37.
Trost (1979), Corijn and Klijzing (2001).
38.
Rindfuss and Stephen (1990), Trost (1998), Fisher (1992).
39.
Cherlin et al. (1997), Corijn and Klijzing (2001).
40.
Deven and Cliquet (1986), Miller (1992), Barber (2005), Van Delft et al. (1988), Burghes (1993).
41.
For instance, Norton and Miller (1992).
42.
Gornick and Meyers (2003), Van Dongen (2009).
43.
Cliquet and Schoenmaeckers (1976).
44.
For instance, Rossi and Rossi (1990), Grundy (2008).
45.
For instance, Cliquet (1987), Chesnais (1998), Teitelbaum (1999), Frejka (2008).
46.
Hoffman-Nowotny (1987), Van de Kaa (1987), Cliquet (1991; 2003).
47.
Lesthaeghe and van de Kaa (1986), Lesthaeghe (1995; 2010).
48.
Deven (1996).
49.
Cliquet (1984), Aarssen (2007).
50.
Cliquet (2003).
51.
For instance, Gauthier and Smeeding (2004).
52.
Behavioural scientists distinguish several parenting styles and practices in early child development. Parenting (or child rearing) is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. For instance, Diana Baumrind (1971) distinguished four major parental types: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved; Dacey and Packer (1992) also distinguished the nurturing parent model.
53.
For instance, Avramov (2002).
54.
For instance, Deven and Cliquet (1986), Fomby and Cherlin (2007), Van Peer (2007).
55.
Lee (1997), Dooghe et al. (1988), Jacobs (2004).
56.
Vanden Boer (1999).
57.
For instance, Cornish (1979), Roussel (1989), Duvold (1995), Moynihan et al. (2005).
58.
See discussion in Berger and Berger (1983), Wright and Jagger (1999).
59.
Abbott and Wallace (1992), Gilbert (1999).
60.
For instance, FM-2030 (1973), Bainbridge (2010).
61.
For instance, Sorgner (2010).
62.
Spira et al. (1993), Laumann et al. (1994), Wellings et al. (1994), Corijn and Klijzing (2001).
63.
Bowlby (1951), Montagu (1957), Rutter (1972).
64.
For instance, Foster (1984), Coşgel (2000).
65.
For instance, Prigent (1955).
66.
For instance, Sharabany et al. (2001).
67.
Arnhart (1998).
68.
Cliquet and Avramov (1998), Avramov and Cliquet (2005).
69.
For instance, Silverstein and Long (1998).
70.
For instance, Hočevar and Černič Istenič (2010).
71.
For instance, Vanden Boer (1999).
72.
Avramov and Cliquet (2003).
73.
For instance, Sorokin (1927).
74.
For instance, Barber (1957), Ellis (1993).
75.
Barber (1957), Grusky (1994).
76.
Hinde (1974), Wilson (1975), Omark et al. (1980), Trivers (1985), Wilkinson (2005).
77.
De Waal (1982), Boehm (1999, 64), Mazur (2004), Chapais (2015, 163).
78.
Knauft (1991, 391), Boehm (2012), Gavrilets (2012), Harvey (2014).
79.
Boehm (1999, 147).
80.
Hamilton (1964), Williams (1966), Alexander (1979).
81.
Betzig (1986).
82.
de Waal (1996, 128).
83.
Omark et al. (1980).
84.
Alexander (1979, 1993), Van der Dennen (1995), Sidanius and Pratto (1999), Flinn et al. (2005), King et al. (2009), Gavrilets and Fortunato (2014).
85.
Cassill and Watkins (2010).
86.
King et al. (2009).
87.
Boone (1998), Krebs (2011, 75ff).
88.
Zahavi and Zahavi (1997).
89.
de Waal (1996, 125).
90.
Marx (1867).
91.
Erdal and Whiten (1994), Boehm (1999).
92.
Fehr and Schmidt (1999).
93.
Boehm (1993; 1997; 1999; 2012), Erdal and Whiten (1994), Dawes et al. (2007), Gavrilets (2012).
94.
Gintis (2000, 252).
95.
Homo egualis, from Italian ‘eguale’, Latin ‘aequalis’.
96.
Gintis (2000, 258); see also Guinote et al. (2015).
97.
Gaus (2015).
98.
Somit and Peterson (1997, 3).
99.
Barber (1957), Chapais (2015).
100.
Sorokin (1927), Burt (1961), Cliquet (1968), Salter (2008).
101.
Savage and Egerton (1997), Rubin (2002).
102.
For instance, Rawls (1971, 100).
103.
For instance, Hacker and Pierson (2010), McQuaig and Brooks (2013), Piketty (2013).
104.
Piketty (2014, 300).
105.
Motesharrei et al. (2014).
106.
Boehm (2012), Gavrilets (2012).
107.
See, for instance, the ‘Sermon on the Mount’ in the Bible, Matthew, 5: 1–12.
108.
Marx (1867), Green (1884), Leo PP XIII (1891).
109.
Masters (1989), Sober and Wilson (1998), Wilson (2002, 36).
110.
Social control is in the interest of higher social status groups because the enduring welfare and success of the privileged also depends on the harmonious functioning of society as a whole (Diamond 2005, 513). Social control is also in the interest of the lower social status groups because leadership is an important condition for the proper functioning of complex societies (De Waal 1996, 128).
111.
Marshall et al. (1999), Baumard et al. (2013).
112.
Cattell (1972, 339), Cela Conde (1987, 148).
113.
For instance, Piff et al. (2012).
114.
For instance, Guinote et al. (2015).
115.
Cattell (1972, 377).
116.
Masters (1989, 185).
117.
Gottfredson (1997, 2004), Bostrom and Sandberg (2007).
118.
Avramov (2003).
119.
In the biological sciences the concept of ‘race’ has a very specific meaning. In population genetic terms it is defined as a population that is statistically significantly distinguished in its allele frequencies from other populations, is distributed within a more or less localised territory, and may interbreed with neighbouring populations in areas of geographical overlap. However, the number of allele pairs to consider in identifying a race is an arbitrary matter. The genetic categorisation of races is a probabilistic matter. Hence, many racial classifications are possible. Usually, populations that differ in only a few of their allele frequencies are not characterised as races. As a rule, the concept is reserved for important biological subdivisions of a species which are distinguishable by a substantial combination of genetic characteristics resulting from their evolutionary past.
120.
The concept of ‘in-group/out-group syndrome’ bundles together all possible forms of social behaviour for situations in which social entities are opposed to each other; it is characterised by a variety of attitudes or feelings of alienation but can also be associated with attitudes and forms of behaviour that involve feelings of superiority versus inferiority and can even be a source of latent or open animosity. The in-group can be defined as a couple, a nuclear or extended family, a circle of friends, a sports club, a clan, a tribe, a social class, a religious or philosophical group, a linguistic group, a cultural community, a nation, a race, or a species. The opposite of the in-group is the antagonistic out-group, the strangers, the ‘others’ (Thienpont and Cliquet 1999).
121.
The term ‘racism’ describes the belief that genetic differences between human populations, which determine particular socially or culturally relevant biological and psychological qualities, justify and legitimate making a discriminating distinction between people belonging to or descending from those populations, and thus treating them differently. However, this term is often used in an inappropriate way, namely referring to ethnic or religious traits that have nothing to do with genetic differences.
122.
Ethnocentrism refers to feelings of loyalty toward one’s own cultural community, usually coupled with negative attitudes toward other, different communities. Ethnocentrism is a broader concept than racism because different types of qualities can characterise culturally identifiable groups: language, values, norms and customs, religion, etc.
123.
Xenophobia (<Greek: xenos = strange, foreign; phobos = fear) concerns feelings of fear or aversion of, if not hatred for, foreigners. Xenophobia is simply the flip side of the same coin as ethnocentrism, although it does not inevitably derive from ethnocentrism. One can be ethnocentric without detesting others. Ethnocentric feelings can turn into hostile feelings as a consequence of negative experiences with neighbours (Van den Berghe 1999).
124.
See for instance, Worchel and Austin (1986), Reynolds et al. (1987), Brewer (1999), Thienpont and Cliquet (1999), Salter (2004), Giles, et al. (2010), Hruschka and Henrich (2013).
125.
See, for instance, Bernhard et al. (2006), Efferson (2008), Yamagishi and Mifune (2008), Mifune et al. (2010), Halevy et al. (2012), Masuda (2012), Mussweiler and Ockenfels (2013).
126.
For instance, Fu et al. (2012), Nakamura and Masuda (2012).
127.
For instance, Banton (1987).
128.
Silverman and Case (1998).
129.
Tullberg and Tullberg (1997).
130.
Hamilton (1964).
131.
Trivers (1972).
132.
Rushton et al. (1984), Salter and Harpending (2013).
133.
Williams (1966), Dawkins (1976).
134.
Cliquet (1965).
135.
Van den Berghe (1978; 1999), Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1998).
136.
Richerson and Boyd (2005, 234).
137.
Noranzayan et al. (2016, 13).
138.
Darwin (1871).
139.
de Waal (1996, 30).
140.
Alexander (1987, 142).
141.
Alexander (1975; 1990), Wrangham (1999), Flinn and Coe (2007, 341).
142.
Masters (1989, 173).
143.
Richerson and Boyd (2005, 214ff).
144.
Gintis (2000, 252).
145.
For instance, Bernhard et al. (2006), Van Dijk and Feith (2010), Bowles and Gintis (2011, 133ff), Hruschka and Henrich (2013).
146.
The concept ‘parochialism’ is a derivation of the concept parish (from Latin ‘parochia’ and Greek ‘paroikia’) which is a small unit of believers in Christian denominations.
147.
For instance, Guo (2006), Lewis and Bates (2010), Hatemi et al. (2010), Lewis et al. (2014), Kandler et al. (2015).
148.
For instance, De Dreu et al. (2011).
149.
Jordan et al. (2014).
150.
See for instance, Hruschka and Henrich (2013), Krosch and Amodio (2014).
151.
Avramov and Cliquet (1999), Avramov and Cliquet (2007), Avramov (2008).
152.
For instance, Christ et al. (2014).
153.
Richerson and Boyd (2005, 229).
154.
For instance, Reynolds et al. (1987), Thienpont and Cliquet (1999).
155.
Salter (2004).
156.
Huyse (1970; 1987).
157.
In addition, Belgium has a cultural pact that obliges public authorities to involve the various ideological and philosophical orientations in the preparation and implementation of cultural policy (Belgisch Staatsblad 1973). The pact also includes guidelines for a balanced ideological composition of governing bodies of institutions, infrastructures and services that were established by the government, or are governed under a public authority.
158.
See, for instance, the Flemish association ‘LEF (Levenbeschouwingen, Ethiek, Filosofie)’ (= Worldviews, Ethics, Philosophy) (http://www.levensbeschouwingen.be/).
159.
The opponents of a general, pluralistic philosophical/religious/ethical course do have a strong didactic argument in their conviction that it is practically impossible for teachers to objectively treat such sensitive, delicate and engaged matters as the different and often opposite world views in a non-prejudiced way. In their mind education in worldviews—whether of a religious or non-religious nature—requires a personal engagement in the specific ideology being dealt with.
160.
Rawls (1971, 242).
161.
Harris (1974), Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1979), Ferguson (1984), Shaw and Wong (1989), Crook (1994), Van Der Dennen (1995), Keeley (1996), Wrangham and Peterson (1996), Guilaine and Zammit (2005), Kelly (2005), McCall and Shields (2008), Bowles (2009), Gat (2009), Baofu (2010), Pitman (2011), Gorelik et al. (2012).
162.
For instance, Mataré (1999, 31), Turchin (2011), Turchin et al. (2013).
163.
Geary (2007, 306); see also Bowles and Gintis (2011, 133).
164.
For violence at the individual level, see Ghiglieri (1999), Kanazawa and Still (2000), Moir and Jessel (1995), Pitchford (2001), Raine (1993), Rowe (2002), Walsh and Ellis (2003). For violence at the group level, see Shaw and Wong (1989), Low (1993), Crook (1994), Van Der Dennen (1995), Keeley (1996), Eibl-Eibesfeldt and Salter (1998), McCall and Shields (2008), Gat (2009), Teehan (2010).
165.
Durrant (2011).
166.
http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=3247&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html.
167.
Wrangham and Peterson (1996).
168.
Rusch et al. (2015).
169.
Egas et al. (2013).
170.
Pitman (2011).
171.
For instance, Boehm (1999), Smirnov et al. (2007), Choi and Bowles (2007), Lehmann and Feldman (2008), Bowles (2009), Ginges and Atran (2011), Halevy et al. (2012), Konrad and Morath (2012), Gavrilets and Fortunato (2014).
172.
Rusch (2014, 359).
173.
Rusch et al. (2015).
174.
Low (1993).
175.
Crook (1994).
176.
Cattell (1972, 202).
177.
See, for instance, Fehr and Fischbacher (2003), Manner and Gowdy (2010).
178.
For instance, World War I and World War II.
179.
For instance, European Union, EU; Shanghai Cooperation Organization, SCO; Association of Southeast Asian Nations, ASEAN; Arab League; African Union, AU; Organization of American States, OAS; Union of South American Nations, UNASUR; Pacific Islands Forum.
180.
United Nations.
181.
For instance, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP); International Monetary Fund (IMF); World Bank Group; United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA).
182.
Cf. the vetoing behaviour of the US, Russian Federation, and China in the Security Council of the UN.
183.
Cf. the opposition by fundamentalist Islamic regimes (and from the Holy See) to many of the draft articles on women’s empowerment, sexual and reproductive rights and health of adolescents, abortion, and the family of what became in the end the Cairo Programme of Action of the third UN World Population Conference in 1994.
184.
Keeley (1996), Pinker (2011).
185.
Pinker (2007); see also Gómez et al. (2016).
186.
Rummel (1994, 1995, 2002).
187.
Cattell (1972, 198).
188.
For instance, Croddy et al. (2004).
189.
See also Cattell (1972).
190.
Cf. the veto rights of large powers, some of which are dictatorial regimes, whereas some others still pursue an imperialist policy.
191.
Cf. the US pressures on judges of the International Criminal Court.
192.
Cr. the highly selective character of recent warlords being brought or not brought to court, for example some of the small fry from former Yugoslavia, but not the Western war criminals responsible for the 2003 Iraq invasion.
193.
The UN Security Council, the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Court.
194.
Bowles and Gintis (2011, 147).
195.
Keith (1948, 58).
196.
Alexander (1987, 190), Boehm (2012, 343).
197.
Dawkins (1976, 10).
198.
Singer (1981, 2002, 111).
199.
Huxley (1964, 84).
200.
See, for instance, John Stewart’s (2008) ‘Evolutionary Manifesto’.
201.
Cattell (1972, 105).
202.
Consider some of the major present-day competitive cooperators on the world scene: the US, the European Union and China. They clearly represent three different societal models, but all are unsustainable in a long-term perspective: the US, dominated by its private capitalist enterprise culture resulting in an unbearable social climate of excessively large variance in income range and lack of social protection for huge segments of its population; the European Union, with its admirable social protection model, but insufficient political integration and policy decision-making; China with its stunning economic growth and development, but its lack of democratic decision-making policy.
203.
See Elgin (1993).
204.
Axelrod (1984, 191).
205.
Stiglitz (2003), Baylis et al. (2011).
206.
Rubin (2002).
207.
Ehrlich (2000, 301).
208.
For instance, Wells (1905), Keith (1946), Huxley (1964), Axelrod (1984), Elgin (1993), Stewart (2008).
209.
See also Modelski et al. (2008).
210.
Penn and Mysterud (2007, 290).
211.
Decety and Cowell (2015, 293).

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Anthropology and Social Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
Robert Cliquet
Population and Family Study Centre (CBGS), Flemish Scientific Institute, Brussels, Belgium
Robert Cliquet
Population and Social Policy Consultants (PSPC), Brussels, Belgium
Dragana Avramov

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Cliquet, R., Avramov, D. (2018). Evolution-Based Ethical Challenges Related to Group Relations. In: Evolution Science and Ethics in the Third Millennium. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73090-5_7

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73090-5_7
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