Evolution-Based Ethical Challenges Related to Individual Variability

Cliquet, Robert; Avramov, Dragana

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-73090-5_6

Robert Cliquet^3,4 &
Dragana Avramov⁵

357 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter deals with age variability, sex variability and individual variability in general. In addition to age and sex relations, interpersonal relations in general are addressed. For each of those issues the salient aspects regarding their evolutionary background, recent trends in modernity, and ethical reflections about the future are discussed. Regarding age variability, the discussion considers the accelerated biological growth process and the prolonged social maturation period in the life course, the increased life expectancy at all life stages, and the prolonging of the terminal phase of life. Regarding sex variability, particular attention is given to the specificity of human sexuality, trends in sexual behavioural in modernity, and ethical reflections about relations between the sexes in the future. Regarding individual variability in general, special attention is paid to the importance of the maintenance of variation, the control of maladaptive traits and attributes, and the containment of individualism. Regarding interpersonal relations in general, the dynamics of individual competition and cooperation, and the causes of individual maladapted behaviour are addressed.

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Notes

1.
Tanner (1962).
2.
For instance, Comfort (1956), Finch (1990).
3.
Medawar (1952).
4.
Lifespan: refers to the typical length of time that an organism can be expected to live.
5.
Carey (2003), Baltes et al. (2006), Gurven and Kaplan (2007).
6.
Meredith (1974), Bodzsar and Susanne (1998), Krawczynski et al. (2003), Zhen-Wang and Cheng-Ye (2005).
7.
Tanner (1962), Flynn (1987).
8.
Sinclair and Dangerfield (1998), Tanner (1978), Vercauteren and Susanne (1985), Hauspie et al. (1996), Krawczynski et al. (2003), Zellner et al. (2004).
9.
Noom (1999), Arnett (2001).
10.
For instance, Doogle et al. (1988), Avramov and Maskova (2003), Jacobs et al. (2004).
11.
For instance, Bostrom (2005, 100).
12.
Life expectancy: the average number of years of life remaining at a given age, i.e. the average expected lifespan of an individual.
13.
Wilmoth (2000).
14.
Galor and Moav (2005), Gurven and Kaplan (2007).
15.
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Mortality_and_life_expectancy_statistics.
16.
Wilmoth and Lundström (1996).
17.
Robine and Vaupel (2002); see also Dong et al. (2016).
18.
Finch (1997, 245).
19.
Notestein (1954).
20.
Avramov and Cliquet (2005).
21.
Butler (1969).
22.
Avramov and Maskova (2003), Avramov and Cliquet (2005).
23.
Kapp (2001).
24.
Minichiello (2000), Palmore (2001).
25.
Andrews (1999).
26.
Avramov and Cliquet (2006).
27.
For instance, Logue (1993), Nuland (1994), Gorsuch (2006), Yount (2007), Griffiths et al. (2008).
28.
For instance, Brock and MacLean (1993), Dowbiggin (2005), Paterson (2008), Wilcockson (2008).
29.
See also Bostrom (2005).
30.
For instance, Avramov and Cliquet (2003).
31.
Commission of the European Communities (2002), World Health Organisation (2002), United Nations (2002), Avramov and Maskova (2003).
32.
“old people who ruminate old ideas in old dwellings” (authors’ translation).
33.
Other anti-ageing strategies such as ‘decelerating ageing’ (=senescence processes are delayed and average life expectancy and maximum life span are increased) and ‘arresting ageing’ (=senescence processes are reversed in adults, restoring vitality and function) (de Grey 2000) which are primarily aimed at extending human lifespan, would also have a substantially favourable effect on health at a greater age.
34.
Fries (1980).
35.
Bostrom (2005), Bostrom and Roache (2008).
36.
Post and Binstock (2004).
37.
Yount (2000).
38.
For instance, Torr (2000), Haley (2003), Allen et al. (2006), Lindsay (2008).
39.
Allen et al. (2006, 6).
40.
Although often considered a form of compassionate medical care for the terminal ill, palliative care (from the Latin palliare, to cloak) is a much broader medical specialisation which is aimed at reducing the severity of disease symptoms, rather than providing a cure, in order to prevent and relieve suffering and to improve quality of life for people facing serious, complex illness. Ventafridda (2006) defines it as a multidisciplinary approach towards patients and their families during the progression of incurable illness, the advanced stages of disease and the last hours of life.
41.
Distelmans (2012, 23).
42.
For instance, Pope John Paul II (1995, 102).
43.
For instance, Boyle (1989), Gorsuch (2006).
44.
For instance, Kohl (1992), Kurtz (1992), Lindsay (2008, 119).
45.
Behuniak (2011).
46.
Deliens and Van der Wal (2003), Nys (2003), Griffiths et al. (2008).
47.
Giroud et al. (1999), Bosshard et al. (2002).
48.
Physician-assisted ‘suicide’ implies that a physician provides a lethal substance to a patient who can apply it at his/her own convenience. It stands in contrast to voluntary active euthanasia in which a physician performs the intervention requested by a patient.
49.
Wikipedia: legality of euthanasia.
50.
Gastmans et al. (2006).
51.
Verhagen and Sauer (2005).
52.
Kass (2002, 264).
53.
For instance, Hayflick (1996).
54.
For instance, Lewis (2001), Fukuyama (2002, 57ff), Chapman (2004).
55.
For instance, Olshansky et al. (2002).
56.
Bostrom (2005).
57.
For instance, Fukuyama (2002, 68).
58.
Gruman (2003).
59.
For instance, Bacon (1627), Metchnikoff (1907), Stapledon (1930), de Grey (2007).
60.
For instance, Ettinger (1965), Ettinger et al. (2005), Harrington (1969), Adams (2004), Zey (2006).
61.
For instance, Chopra (2006), D’Souza (2009), Kübler-Ross (2012).
62.
See also Temkin (2008).
63.
Hayflick (2000), Perls and Fretts (2001).
64.
Sacher (1959), Judge and Carey (2000).
65.
For instance, Gyngell (2015) advances evolutionary arguments against radical increases in life expectancy in general.
66.
Harris (2007, 68).
67.
Isler and van Schaik (2012).
68.
The care of the big-brained, long maturing hominin infant influenced not only the evolution of the cooperative breeding of the parents but also involved support from other family members such as juveniles (e.g. Kramer and Otárola-Castillo 2015) and grandmothers (e.g. Hill and Hurtado 1991).
69.
Symons (1979), Cliquet (1984), Rancour-Laferriere (1985), Lancaster et al. (1987), Ridley (1993), Geary (1998), Miller (2000), Cieri et al. (2014).
70.
Lancaster (1985), Rancour-Laferriere (1985).
71.
Cattell (1972, 245).
72.
Dahlberg (1981), Slocum (1980).
73.
Chagnon (1990).
74.
Brace and Ryan (1980), Frayer (1980), Frayer and Wolpoff (1985).
75.
DeVore and Washburn (1963).
76.
Leutenegger and Cheverud (1982).
77.
Cheverud et al. (1985).
78.
Plavcan (2001).
79.
Buss and Malamuth (Eds.) (1996).
80.
Cliquet (2010, 199–210).
81.
Malamuth (1996, 275).
82.
Buss (1996, 306), Wrangham and Peterson (1996).
83.
Hiatt (1989), Taylor (2002), Geary (2006).
84.
For instance, Marlowe (2003), Chapais (2013).
85.
Melotti (1980).
86.
Buss (1999).
87.
Buss (1999).
88.
MacDonald (1995).
89.
Chapais (2013).
90.
Low (1990), Bauch and McElreath (2016).
91.
Fortunato and Archetti (2010).
92.
Alexander (1971; 1979), Betzig (1986), Holcomb (1993), Ridley (1993), Voland (1993), MacDonald (1995), Van Schaik and Michel (2016, 136).
93.
Henrich et al. (2012).
94.
Kanazawa and Still (1999), Marlowe (2000), de la Croix and Mariani (2015).
95.
Betzig (1995), Arnhart (1998), Geary (1998, 156), Rubin (2002, 118).
96.
Buss and Schmitt (1993).
97.
Garcia et al. (2010), Zietsch et al. (2015).
98.
Eaton and Mayer (1953), Charbonneau (1979), Nieschlag (1986).
99.
Singh (1993), Hughes and Gallup (2003), Streeter and McBurney (2003).
100.
Barber (1995).
101.
Fisher (1930), Williams (1975), Howell (1979).
102.
Buss (1989), Thiessen et al. (1993), Bereczkei and Csanaky (1996), Wiederman and Kendall (1999), Lee et al. (2014), Antfolk et al. (2015).
103.
Kachigan (1990), Moir and Jessel (1992).
104.
Ridley (1993).
105.
For instance, Fisher (1992), Bartels and Zeki (2000), Emanuele et al. (2007), Savulescu and Sandberg (2008).
106.
See, for instance, Diamond (2004), Fisher et al. (2005), Gonzaga et al. (2006).
107.
Mellen (1981), Gangestad (2011, 125).
108.
For instance, Mellen (1981), Buss (1994).
109.
For instance, Westermarck (1922), Jankowiak and Fischer (1992), Jankowiak (1995).
110.
Laumann et al. (1994), Corijn and Klijzing (2001).
111.
For instance, Buss (2007, 379, 380).
112.
Westermarck (1922), Murdock (1961), Mellen (1981).
113.
Kinsey et al. (1948; 1953), Spira et al. (1993), Laumann et al. (1994), Wellings et al. (1994).
114.
Roussel (1989).
115.
Montagu (1955), Maslow (1972).
116.
Farrell (1993), Gray and Garcia (2013).
117.
Jankowiak and Fischer (1992), Buss (1994, 2007), Fisher (2004).
118.
In the sexuological literature, the definition of sexual deviation shows some variation. Some authors limit it to activities involving a non-human object, a non-consenting partner such as a child, or pain or humiliation of oneself or one’s partner (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Sexual+deviations); others include many more variants such as homosexuality, exhibitionism and voyeurism (e.g. Hewitt 2002). Here, the authors also include forms of behaviour such as celibacy and promiscuity, which deviate from the ‘normal’ pattern of human heterosexuality and reproduction.
119.
Westermarck (1906; 1922), Van den Berghe (1980), Shepher (1983), Wolf (1995), Wolf and Durham (2004), Turner and Maryanski (2005).
120.
Muscarella et al. (2001), Wilson and Rahman (2008), Vasey and VanderLaan (2014).
121.
Buss and Malamuth (1996), Thornhill and Thornhill (1983), Thornhill and Palmer (2000), Brown Travis (2003).
122.
For instance, Seto et al. (2001).
123.
For instance, Burley and Symanski (1981), Buss (1994), Schmitt et al. (2001), McGuire and Gruter (2003).
124.
For instance, Goodman (1998), Hewitt (2002), Shepher and Reisman (1985).
125.
Hewitt (2002).
126.
McAnulty and Burnette (2006).
127.
For instance, Bell and Weinberg (1978), Schwartz et al. (2010).
128.
Ellis and Symonds (1897).
129.
For instance, Spira et al. (1993), Laumann et al. (1994), Wellings et al. (1994).
130.
Hamer and Copeland (1995), Camperio-Ciani et al. (2004; 2012), Zietsch et al. (2008), Bonduriansky and Chenoweth (2009), Schwartz et al. (2010), Blanchard (2011), Camperio-Ciani et al. (2015); see also Chaladze (2016).
131.
Barthes et al. (2013).
132.
Hutchinson (1959), Kirsch and Rodman (1982), MacIntyre and Estep (1993), Miller (2000).
133.
Wilson (1975), Weinrich (1978), Blanchard (1997), Apostolou (2013), VanderLaan et al. (2013).
134.
Trivers (1971).
135.
Trivers (1974); see discussion in McKnight (1997, 145–159), and in Kirkpatrick (2000).
136.
Kirkpatrick (2000), Ross and Wells (2000), Fleischman et al. (2014).
137.
Mellen (1981), Miller (2000), Rahman and Wilson (2003).
138.
Mellen (1981).
139.
However, the greater sexual fluidity in women might have been an adaptation to the need for cooperative breeding which was a strategy through which ancestral women obtained additional investment for their offspring in order to compensate for common crises such as rape, paternal desertion or death (Kuhle 2013; see also Kanazawa 2016). Another explanation for the divergence of exclusive heterosexual orientation in women is that, in pre-modern living conditions, selection pressures against alleles for such orientations were weak because of the strong parental and partner control of female mating behaviour (see Apostolou 2016).
140.
Miller (2000).
141.
Rahman and Wilson (2003).
142.
Wood and Eagly (2007, 387); see also Konner (2015).
143.
The term ‘sexism’ has been coined to define ideological and social systems in which sexual variation is used as a primary criterion to assign normatively differentially valued roles and tasks in society (Duberman and Azumi 1975).
144.
“Kirche, Küche und Kinder”: church, kitchen and children.
145.
Karimi-Boosherhi and Rasouli-Nia (1988), Jogan (1989).
146.
Due to immigration from developing countries, in particular with an Islamic religious or cultural background in which women are considered male property, Western societies are increasingly confronted with an upsurge of traditional macho or sexist attitudes and forms of behaviour; they are even experiencing behavioural phenomena such as veiling, honour killings and female genital cutting which had belonged for a long time in the past or they were never part of Western cultural traditions (Manji 2003; Bawer 2006; Van Rooy and Van Rooy 2010).
147.
For instance, Goldberg (1973, 1993), Farrell (1993), Connell (1995), Bly (2004).
148.
Honeywill (2016, 17).
149.
Van der Dennen (1995), Batten (1994), Cronin (2006).
150.
For instance, Geary (1998, 142).
151.
For instance, McAllister (2009); see also Farrell (1993), Tiger (1999), Sykes (2003).
152.
For instance, Tiger (1999).
153.
Abramson and Pinkerton (1995), Kontula and Haavio-Mannila (1995), Comfort (2003).
154.
Bruess and Greenberg (2008), Sauerteig and Davidson (2008), Schroeder and Kuriansky (2009).
155.
http://www.ncsl.org/research/health/state-policies-on-sex-education-in-schools.aspx.
156.
For instance, Santelli et al. (2006), Ott and Santelli (2007), Kohler and Lafferty (2008).
157.
For instance, Collins et al. (2002).
158.
Feldman et al. (1991).
159.
Gottschall (2004), Kivlahan and Ewigman (2010).
160.
In contrast to the feminist theory (e.g. Brownmiller 1975; Mardorossian 2004) and the social learning theory (e.g. Malamuth 1980) of rape, the evolutionary theory of rape endeavours to look at the more distant (ultimate) causes of this form of sexual deviance, also taking into account proximate factors of social and biological nature. From an evolutionary perspective, rape is seen as a secondary reproductive strategy of individuals, mainly males, who have no ability or occasion, either due to female rejection or parental objection, to establish a long-lasting sexual relationship or investment in offspring. The predominance of rape among the male sex is explained by the fact that human males are still characterised by a smaller parental investment in offspring, and that they may increase their reproductive fitness by inseminating several females. Although there are strong selective forces against rapist behaviour (from females as well as from ‘other’ competing males) natural selection has apparently succeeded in preserving this violent form of sexual behaviour as a minority phenomenon (Denno 1998–1999; Thornhill and Palmer 2000; Brown Travis 2003; Zeedyk 2007; Apostolou 2013). It can be expected that in modernity, where contraception and induced abortion are broadly available, this form of behaviour will be more strongly selected against (see also Blum 1998, 251).
161.
For instance, Suarez and Gadalla (2010).
162.
For instance, Kilpatrick et al. (1992); Kilpatrick (2000), Suarez and Gadalla (2010).
163.
Kilpatrick et al. (1992), Jones (1999), Kilpatrick (2000), Ellis (1989, 3).
164.
Westmarland and Gangoli (2012).
165.
United Nations (1989).
166.
Pilgrim (2011).
167.
Spira et al. (1993), Laumann et al. (1994), Wellings et al. (1994).
168.
Marmor (1980).
169.
Gallup and Suarez (1983).
170.
Diamond (1993), Spira et al. (1993), Laumann et al. (1994), Wellings et al. (1994).
171.
Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and in some regions of Mexico and the United States.
172.
See also Apostolou (2016).
173.
Ehrlich (2003).
174.
Fraternal brotherhood effect: the probability of displaying a homosexual preference increases with the number of older brothers (Blanchard 1997; Blanchard and Klassen 1997; Barthes et al. 2013).
175.
However, solid evidence in support of the social environment as a causal factor in the development of sexual orientation does not yet exist. In general, children raised in homosexual environments have a heterosexual orientation (Swaab 2004).
176.
For instance, Cozic (1995), Williams (2000).
177.
Gensler (2012); see also the discussion of the Golden rule in its negative and positive versions in Churchland (2011, 171).
178.
Avramov and Cliquet (2005).
179.
Hesketh and Xing (2006), Lai-wan et al. (2006), Prabhat et al. (2006).
180.
For instance, Baumgardner and Richards (2000).
181.
United Nations (1948), Council of Europe (1950; 2010).
182.
Denniston et al. (1999; 2010).
183.
Doyle (2005).
184.
Mellen (1981), Lampert (1997), Fisher (2004), Pedersen (2004).
185.
Avramov and Cliquet (2005).
186.
For instance, Dobzhansky (1962), Glover (1984; 2003).
187.
For instance, Stewart et al. (1981).
188.
For instance, Volk and Atkinson (2013).
189.
Andreoni (1989), Harbaugh et al. (2007); see also Manner and Gowdy (2010).
190.
For instance, Berkman and Kawachi (2000), Bauer et al. (2008).
191.
Sandu (2015, 3); see also Forlini and Hall (2015).
192.
For instance, Rothman and Rothman (2003), Carter (2016).
193.
Dobzhansky (1962), Thibault (1972).
194.
Burnham and Phelan (2000, 120); see also Chapman (2004, 103), Krebs (2011, 94).
195.
Frank (2010).
196.
Dodds (2008, 121); see also Krebs (2011, 87).
197.
Due to the combination of the large number of genes in the genome, and the processes of meiosis and fertilisation, an endless number of genetically different individuals can be formed. Current estimates indicate that all humans are approximately 99.6–99.8% identical at the nucleotide sequence level. Within the remaining 0.2–0.4% genetic material, approximately 10 million DNA variants can potentially occur in different combinations. This represents a very small fraction of the total genome, but it is vastly more than enough variation to ensure individual uniqueness at the DNA level (Tishkoff and Kidd 2004). With the exception of monozygotic (identical) twins, where the segregation-recombination—mechanism is bypassed, no two individuals have the same genome.
198.
Lukes (1971).
199.
For instance, Schmid (1984).
200.
Halman et al. (2007).
201.
Glenn (1987).
202.
Lesthaeghe (2002), Hofferth (2003), Karraker and Grochowski (2005).
203.
Maryanski and Turner (1992).
204.
Elliot and Lemert (2005).
205.
For instance, Meredith (1974).
206.
Thomson (1959), Nettle (2002).
207.
For instance, Ruff (2002).
208.
For instance, it is well-known that tall inmates of the Nazi concentration camps were much more vulnerable to the meagre rations they received (Baker et al. 2010; Wachsmann and Caplan 2010).
209.
For instance, Muller (1958), Huxley (1964), Cattell (1972), Bostrom and Savulescu (2009).
210.
For instance, Ehrlich (2000).
211.
For instance, Cattell (1972).
212.
Grinde (1996).
213.
Huxley (1964, 246).
214.
Mather and Jinks (1971), Lynch and Walsh (1998), Kearsey and Pooni (1998), Plomin, et al. (2008).
215.
Bajema (1971).
216.
FM‐2030 (1970; 1973; 1989), More (1990), Bostrom (2003; 2005), Hughes (2004), Kurzweil (2005), Young (2006), Savulescu and Bostrom (2009).
217.
Masters (1989).
218.
See also Mealey (1995, 166).
219.
Tancredi (2005, 192); see also Brosnan and de Waal (2003).
220.
Schaar (1967).
221.
Corning (2010).
222.
Beck and Beck-Gernsheim (2002).
223.
De Waal (1996, 167).
224.
Hayek (1979, 165).
225.
Wielemans (1993).
226.
For instance, Singer (1999, 44).
227.
See Keith (1946, 64), Teehan (2006; 2009).
228.
Ferguson and Beaver (2009).
229.
McCall and Shields (2008).
230.
Hawley and Vaughn (2003), Smith (2007), Ferguson (2008).
231.
Beaver et al. (2009), Rietveld et al. (2003), Wright et al. (2008), Nettle (2006).
232.
For instance, Caspi et al. (2002).
233.
Hauser (2006, 132).
234.
Corning (1983, 84).
235.
Darwin (1871).
236.
See also Weiss and Buchanan (2009).
237.
Recent overviews on evolution of cooperation can be found in: Wilson and Sober (1994), Axelrod (2001), Sanderson (2001), Barash (2003), Hammerstein (2003), Kappeler and van Schaik (2006), Weiss and Buchanan (2009), Bowles and Gintis (2011), Krebs (2011), Nowak and Highfield (2011), Sussman and Cloninger (2011), Voland (2013).
238.
Nesse (2000, 229, 230).
239.
Miller (1998); see also Chap. 2, Sect. 2.1.2.4.
240.
Alexander (1987), Frank (1998), Nesse (2009), Boehm (2014); see also Chap. 2, Sect. 2.2.2.3.
241.
Schelling (1960), Hirshleifer (1978), Frank (1988), Nesse (2001).
242.
Trivers (1974).
243.
Van den Berghe (1979), see also Chap. 2, Sect. 2.2.2.7.
244.
Nowak (2006, 1563).
245.
For instance, Gorelik et al. (2012).
246.
For instance, Nowak et al. (2010), West et al. (2011), Tomasello et al. (2012), Krasnow et al. (2013), Rand and Nowak (2013), Smaldino et al. (2013), Zaki and Mitchell (2013), Keltner et al. (2014).
247.
For instance, Brosnan (2010), Melis and Semmann (2010), Langergraber et al. (2011), Silk and House (2011), Barrett et al. (2012), Grueter et al. (2012), Burkart et al. (2014).
248.
For instance, Tomasello (2009), Hamlin et al. (2011), House et al. (2012), Sebastian et al. (2013), Kuhlmeier et al. (2014), Jensen et al. (2014).
249.
For instance, Rosas (2010), Fehl et al. (2011), Marlowe et al. (2011), Xia et al. (2011), Eriksson and Strimling (2012), Garcia and Traulsen (2012), Hwang and Bowles (2012), Zhuang et al. (2012), Capraro et al. (2014), Stewart and Plotkin (2014), Hoffman et al. (2015).
250.
For instance, Smith (2010), Marlowe et al. (2011), Xia et al. (2011), Garcia and Traulsen (2012), Hwang and Bowles (2012), Nowak and Highfield (2012), Tomasello et al. (2012), Rand and Nowak (2013), Wang (2013), Capraro et al. (2014), Smaldino (2014).
251.
Fessler and Haley (2003).
252.
For instance, Atkinson and Bourrat (2011), Chudek and Henrich (2011), Dijker (2011), Ihara (2011), Bogin et al. (2014), Phillips et al. (2014).
253.
For instance, Lamba and Mace (2011), Powers and Lehmann (2013), Krasnow et al. (2013), Tan et al. (2013).
254.
Masters (1989, 1), May et al. (1989), Hinde (2002, 178), Kümmerli et al. (2010).
255.
For instance, Nowak and Highfield (2011, 267ff).
256.
Bowles and Gintis (2011, 4).
257.
For instance, Pope (1994; 2007).
258.
Leviticus 19:18.
259.
National motto of France, originating in the French revolution (Latham 1906).
260.
Nesse (2000, 228).
261.
Lopreato (1981, 117).
262.
Keeley (1996), Gat (2006), Choi and Bowles (2007), Lehmann and Feldman (2008), Bowles (2009; 2012), Ginges and Atran (2011), Halevy et al. (2012), Gneezy and Fessler (2012), Gorelik et al. (2012), Konrad and Morath (2012), Rusch (2014), Puurtinen et al. (2015).
263.
Wilson and Sober (1994).
264.
Antisocial behaviour is any behaviour that causes damage to other persons or even to society as a whole. It is to be distinguished from asocial behaviour which refers to the absence of interaction with other people.
265.
Moffitt (2005), Rutter et al. (2006).
266.
Thomas (1984), Barr and Quinsey (2004).
267.
For instance, Colman and Wilson (1997).
268.
For instance, Masters (1989).
269.
Rowe (2002), Mealey (1995), Walsh and Ellis (2003), Gottschalk and Ellis (2009).
270.
Wrangham and Peterson (1996), Ghiglieri (1999).
271.
Ellis (1998).
272.
Macmillan and Kofoed (1984), Harpending and Draper (1988), Gottschalk and Ellis (2009).
273.
Thornhill and Thornhill (1983), Thornhill and Palmer (2000).
274.
Ellis (1987).
275.
Alexander (1979), Ellis (1990).
276.
Daly and Wilson (1988), Duntley and Buss (2005).
277.
Hiatt (1989), Geary (2006).
278.
Buss (1994; 2002).
279.
Lightcap et al. (1982), Burgess and Garbarino (1983), Ellis (1998), Daly and Wilson (1988).
280.
Raine (1993).
281.
Campbell (1975), Masters (1989, 158).
282.
Bowlby (1969), Irons (1998).
283.
Bowlby (1969), Tooby and Cosmides (1990), Wilson (1975; 1978), Burnham and Johnson (2005).
284.
Ridley (1993).
285.
Stearns (2007).
286.
Masters (1989, 21).
287.
For instance, Shichor et al. (1979), Kneebone and Raphael (2011).
288.
Kohn (1987).
289.
For instance, Cordes (2008).
290.
In this respect Richard Dawkins (1976, 105) characterised the welfare state as: “perhaps the greatest altruistic system the animal kingdom has ever known. But any altruistic system is inherently unstable, because it is open to abuse by selfish individuals, ready to exploit it.”
291.
Latané and Draley (1970).
292.
For instance, Burton (2008).
293.
See, for instance, Kasper and Borgerhoff Mulder (2015).
294.
Keys and Brozek (1950).
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301.
For instance, Mealey (1995), Thienpont (2005), Ferguson (2008; 2010), Duntley and Shackelford (2008).
302.
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303.
See Callahan (2004).
304.
Recently, many commentators in Western countries have expressed surprise about Western-raised and educated young men of Muslim creed joining the ranks of the Jihad warriors in the so-called Caliphate ISIS that Islamic fundamentalists are trying to erect in parts of Syria and Iraq or undertaking terrorist attacks in Western countries. This is not surprising at all. First of all, the numbers of European jihadi in proportion to the total Muslim population in Europe is extremely small (<0.02%). Even when only younger age groups (20–40) are taken into account, the figures remain very low (<0.2%). Indeed, it is rather surprising that the pull is not much higher, given the Western policies towards the Middle East on the one hand, and the poor integration of many second- and third-generation migrant descendants on the other hand. It is a textbook example of a convergence of all necessary biosocial elements to produce such a phenomenon: (1) young men, (2) sexually highly aroused but frustrated, (3) many with relatively low cognitive abilities making them easily susceptible to simplistic and fulfilling instigations about aggressing and destroying out-groups, (4) and/or emotional personality characteristics, predisposing them to adventurous heroic, asocial or criminal behaviour (Victoroff 2005; Weenink 2015), in contrast with their often dull or banal preoccupations or even non-occupations, (5) experiencing feelings of injustice toward their own in-group and/or feelings of personal deprivation of societal benefits, (6) strongly in need of finding or affirming a socially high status identity, (7) preyed on by fundamentalist religious zealots who find ample incentives in their holy scriptures to arouse self-deception among their adherents (Fink and Trivers 2014) and to incite them to punish or kill the out-group of despicable infidels, amply taking advantage of the inborn drive to defend and promote the in-group and assault out-group(s), and (8) last but not least, originating from a religious group in which fundamentalist beliefs about the construction of an idealised world, especially in the hereafter, are largely prevailing (Koopmans 2013). In particular the last factor may be an important cause for the astonishing fact that some well educated youngsters, originating from privileged wealthy families, also appear to be attracted to the jihad calling.
An even more puzzling question is why Western-educated Muslim women migrate to ISIS, although here the numbers are even lower than for the male jihadists. From a preliminary analysis of the motives of such women (Hoyle et al. 2015), it appears that partly similar factors as for male ISIS adepts play a role in their decision, namely disappointment with Western society and policy, but also, based on their indoctrinated belief system, desire to be part of and contribute to an ideal Muslim society in the traditional, dutiful, submissive, domestic female role.
305.
Moir and Jessel (1995), Rocque et al. (2012).
306.
For instance, Black and Lindon (2013).
307.
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Mealey (1995; 1997, 162).
309.
Hare (1999).
310.
Mealey (1995).
311.
Sigvardsson et al. (1982), Mulder et al. (1994), Cottler et al. (1995).
312.
See, for instance, Baron-Cohen (1997; 2011). Some authors consider psychopaths to be a subspecies of humans (Harris 1995; Kopenhaver 2010), or a special taxon (Harris et al. 1994), erroneously applying taxonomic concepts to phenomena which are expressions of normal variation within the human species.
313.
Cleckley (1984), Hare (1999), Churchland (2002), Millon et al. (2002), Blair et al. (2005), Blair, (2006), Farrow (2007).
314.
Hare (1999), Fulton et al. (2010; 2014).
315.
Eysenck (1977), Raine (1993), Ellis and Walsh (2000), Noziglia and Siegel (2006).
316.
Blair (1997, 87), Blair et al. (2005).
317.
For instance, Harpending and Sobus (1987), Hare (1999).
318.
Dutton (2012).
319.
Cleckley (1984), Hare and Neumann (2008).
320.
Hare (1995), Plomin and McGuffin (2003), Jang (2005), Viding et al. (2005), Larsson et al. (2006).
321.
For instance, Mason and Frick (1994), Viding et al. (2005), Larsson et al. (2006), Ferguson (2010).
322.
Kandel and Freed (1989), Damasio et al. (1990), Smith et al. (1992), LaPierre et al. (1995), Raine et al. (2000), Tiihonen et al. (2000), Blair, et al. (2001), Laakso et al. (2001), Lacasse et al. (2003), Hauser (2006, 237), Kiehl et al. (2001; 2006), Rilling et al. (2007), de Oliveira-Souzaa et al. (2008), Weber et al. (2008), Wahlund and Kristiansson (2009), Yang et al. (2009), Rijsdijsk et al. (2010), Remmel and Glenn (2015).
323.
Pitchford (2001).
324.
Barr and Quinsey (2004), Glenn et al. (2011).
325.
For instance, MacMillian and Kofoed (1984), Harpending and Sobus (1987), Harris et al. (1994), Harris (1995), Mealey (1995), Baron-Cohen (1997), Colman and Wilson (1997), Pitchford (2001), Crawford and Salmon (2002), Wiebe (2004), Ferguson (2008), Verplaetse et al. (2009), Cartwright (2010, 427), Kopenhaver (2010), Glenn et al. (2011), Glover (2011).
326.
Baily (1995), Mealey (1995), Colman and Wilson (1997).
327.
See also Hare (1995), Wiebe (2004).
328.
Baily (1995), Book and Quinsey (2004), Kopenhaver (2010).
329.
Boehm (2012, 338).
330.
Callahan (2004), Lobaczewski and Knight-Jadczyk (2007), Kopenhaver (2010).
331.
Boddy et al. (2010).
332.
Boddy (2011).
333.
For instance, Motesharrei et al. (2014).
334.
Alexander (1993, 180).
335.
Hauser (2006, 10).
336.
Harris (2010, 55).
337.
Gardner (1983).
338.
Bowles and Gintis (2011, 199).
339.
Harris (2010, 101).

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Anthropology and Social Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
Robert Cliquet
Population and Family Study Centre (CBGS), Flemish Scientific Institute, Brussels, Belgium
Robert Cliquet
Population and Social Policy Consultants (PSPC), Brussels, Belgium
Dragana Avramov

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Cliquet, R., Avramov, D. (2018). Evolution-Based Ethical Challenges Related to Individual Variability. In: Evolution Science and Ethics in the Third Millennium. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73090-5_6

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73090-5_6
Published: 12 January 2018
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