Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Embodied Carbon in Buildings pp 217–245Cite as

Embodied Carbon in Construction, Maintenance and Demolition in Buildings

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

Due to the rapid growth of the construction industry during the last decades, building-related waste has become a major source of concern from governments both nationally and internationally. Construction, maintenance and demolition waste is often neglected as it is perceived as less important than waste generated from operating activities. However, research studies reveal that waste is generated at all different stages of the building’s lifecycle and this has a profound impact not only in terms of increasing project cost but also adding to environmental pollution as the common type of treatments for wastes is landfilling and/or incineration. Reducing waste will reduce energy use, minimise degradation of the environment and reduce embodied carbon emissions. This chapter reviews the nature, characteristic and magnitude of construction, maintenance and demolition waste of buildings and their associated embodied carbon emissions. It also examines policies, initiatives and international regulations in dealing with the problem of waste and the calculation methods for the assessment of embodied carbon of waste in the various stages of a building’s life; it ends with a discussion on strategies of reducing waste and a case study.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Acquaye, A. A., & Duffy, A. P. (2010). Input-output analysis of Irish construction sector greenhouse gas emissions. Building and Environment, 45, 784–791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AIQS. (2002). Australian cost management manual volume 3 – Life cycle costing. Canberra: Australian Institute of Quantity Surveyors.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous. (2012). Review of Australia’s international waste-related reporting obligations. Queensland: Sinclair Knight Merz Pty Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arrigoni, A., Collatina, D., Zucchinelli, M., & Dotelli, G. (2016). The environmental relevance of the construction and end-of-life phases of a building: A temporary structure LCA case study, Proceedings: Sustainable Built Environment (SBE) Regional Conference (pp. 436–441), 15–17, Zurich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arslan, H., Cosgun, N. & Salgin, B. (2012). Construction and demolition waste management in Turkey. In L. F. M. Rebellion (Ed.), Chapter 14, Waste management – An integrated vision. Intech.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakshan, A., Srour, I., Chehab, G., & El-Fadel, M. (2015). A field based methodology for estimating waste generation rates at various stages of construction projects. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 100, 70–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banias, G., Achillas, C., Vlachokostas, C., Moussiopoulos, N., & Tarsenis, S. (2010). Assessing multiple criteria for the optimal location of a construction and demolition waste management facility. Building and Environment, 45, 2317–2326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bossink, B. A. G., & Brouwers, H. J. H. (1996). Construction waste: Quantification and source evaluation. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 122(1), 55–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BPIC LCI project is available from the BPIC website. (2017). http://www.bpic.asn.au/bpic/the-building-products-innovation-council

  • Brander, M. (2012). Greenhouse gases, CO2, CO2e and carbon: What do all these terms mean? Ecometrica, 1–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brennan, J., Ding, G., Wonschik, C. R., & Vessalas, K. (2014). A closed-loop system of construction and demolition waste recycling. In Proceedings of the 31st international symposium on automation and robotics in construction and mining (pp. 499–505), Sydney, Australia, 9–11 July.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butera, S., Christensen, T. H., & Astrup, T. F. (2015). Life cycle assessment of construction and demolition waste management. Waste Management, 44, 196–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CEN. (2011). Sustainability of construction works – Assessment of environmental performance of buildings – Calculation method. UK: British Standard Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cochran, K., Townsend, T., Reinhart, D., & Heck, H. (2007). Estimation of regional building-related C&D debris generation and composition: Case study for Florida US. Journal of Waste Management, 27, 921–931.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, R. J. (1999). Energy and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the construction of alternative structural systems. Building and Environment, 34(3), 335–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cosgun, T. E. (2005). Ecological analysis of reusability and recyclability of modified building materials and components at use phase of residential buildings in Istanbul, UIA 2005 Istanbul XXII World Congress of Architecture-Cities: Grand Bazaar of Architectures, 310, July, Istanbul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowther, P. (2015). Re-valuing construction materials and components through design to disassembly’. In: Proceedings: Unmaking waste 2015 conference, 22–24 May, Adelaide.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahlbo, H., Bacher, J., Lahtinen, K., Jouttijarvi, T., Suoheimo, P., Mattila, T., Sironen, S., Myllymaa, T., & Saramaki, K. (2015). Construction and demolition waste management- a holistic evaluation of environmental performance. Journal of Cleaner Production, 107, 333–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dajadian, S. A., & Koch, D. C. (2014). Waste management models and their applications on construction site. International Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 3(3), 91–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • DCCEE. (2010). National greenhouse accounts (NGA) factors. Canberra: Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Wolf, C., Bird, K., & Ochsendorf, J. (2016). Material quantities and embodied carbon in exemplary low carbon case studies. In G. Habert & A. Schlueter (Ed.), Proceedings: Sustainable Built Environment (SBE) regional conference, expand boundaries: system thinking for the built environment (pp. 726–733). Zurich.

    Google Scholar 

  • DECC. (2007). Report into the construction and demolition waste stream audit 2000–2005. NSW: Department of Environment and Climate Change.

    Google Scholar 

  • DEE. (2013). National waste reporting 2013, Department of Environment and Energy, Australian Government. http://www.environment.gov.au/resource/national-waste-reporting-downloads. Date of access: 16/1/2017.

  • DEH. (2006). AGO factors and methods workbook. Canberra: Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Greenhouse Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gangolells, M., Casals, M., Gassó, S., Forcada, N., Roca, X., & Fuertes, A. (2009). A methodology for predicting the severity of environmental impacts related to the construction process of residential buildings. Building and Environment, 44(3), 558–571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, T., Shen, L., Shen, M., Chen, F., Liu, L., & Gao, L. (2015). Analysis on differences of carbon dioxide emission from cement production and their major determinants. Journal of Cleaner Production, 103, 160–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gong, X., Nie, Z., Wang, Z., Cui, S., Gao, F., & Zuo, T. (2012). Life cycle energy consumption and carbon dioxide emission of residential building designs in Beijing. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 16(4), 576–587.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, G. P., & Jones, C. I. (2008). Embodied energy and carbon in construction materials. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers & Energy, 161(2), 87–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, X., Si, T., & Liu, C. (2017). Total factor carbon emission performance measurement and development. Journal of Cleaner Production, 142, 2804–2815.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang, T., Shi, F., Tanikawa, H., Fei, J., & Han, J. (2013). Materials demand and environmental impact of buildings construction and demolition in China based on dynamic material flow analysis. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 72, 91–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IPCC. (2013). In T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, G. -K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex, & P. M. Midgley (Eds.), Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, A., & Baum, H. (2011). A novel methodology to estimate the evolution of construction waste in construction sites. Waste Management, 31, 353–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kua, H. W., & Wong, C. L. (2012). Analysing the life cycle greenhouse gas emission and energy consumption of a multi-storied commercial building in Singapore from an extended system boundary perspective. Energy and Buildings, 51, 6–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kubba, S. (2010). Green construction project management and cost oversight. Oxford: Architectural Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laquatra, J., & Pierce, M. (2011). Waste management at the construction site. In S. Kumar (Ed.), Integrated waste management volume 1 (pp. 281–300). Intech.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Ding, Z. X., & Wang, J. (2013). A model for estimating construction waste generation index for building project in China. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 74, 20–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, C., & Pun, S. K. (2006). A framework for material management in the building demolition industry. Architectural Science Review, 49(4), 391–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Llatas, C. (2011). A model for quantifying construction waste in projects according to the European waste list. Waste Management, 31(6), 1261–1276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu, W., & Yuan, H. (2011). A framework for understanding waste management studies in construction. Waste Management, 31, 1252–1260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu, W., Yuan, H., Li, J., Hao, J. J. L., Mi, X., & Ding, Z. (2011). An empirical investigation of construction and demolition waste generation rates in Shenzhen city, South China. Waste Management, 31(4), 680–687.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malia, M., de Brito, J., Pinheiro, M. D., & Bravo, M. (2013). Construction and demolition waste indicators. Waste Management & Research, 31(3), 241–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manfredi, S., & Pant, R. (2011). Supporting environmentally sound decisions for construction and demolition (C&D) waste management – A practical guide to life cycle thinking (LCT) and life cycle assessment (LCA), Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, EUR 24918 EN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mao, C., Shen, Q., Shen, L., & Tang, L. (2013). Comparative study of greenhouse gas emissions between off-site prefabrication and conventional construction methods: Two case studies of residential projects. Energy and Buildings, 66, 165–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, R. E., & Farahbakhsh, K. (2013). Systems approaches to integrated solid waste management in developing countries. Waste Management, 33(4), 988–1003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menzies, G. F., & Wherrett, J. R. (2005). Multiglazed windows: Potential for savings in energy, emissions and cost. Building Services Engineering Research and Technology, 26(3), 248–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mercader-Moyano, P., & Ramirez-de-Arellano-Agudo, A. (2013). Selective classification and quantification model of construction and demolition waste from material resources consumed in residential building construction. Waste Management & Research, 31(5), 458–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffatt, S., & Kohler, N. (2008). Conceptualizing the built environment as a social-ecological system. Building Research and Information, 36(3), 248–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moncaster, A. M., & Symons, K. E. (2013). A method and tool for cradle to grave embodied carbon and energy impacts of UK buildings in compliance with the new TC350 standard. Energy and Buildings, 66, 514–523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monier, V., Mudgal, S., Hestin, M., Trarieux, M., & Mimid, S. (2011). Management of construction and demolition waste – SRI: Final report task 2. European Commission (DG ENV), February.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadoushani, Z. M., & Akbarnezhad, A. (2015). Computational method for estimation of life cycle carbon footprint of buildings. In C. Blackman (Ed.), Chapter 2, carbon footprinting. Hauppauge: Nova Science Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagapan, S., Rahman, I. A., Asmi, A., & Adnan, N. F. (2013). Study of site’s construction waste in Batu Pahat, Johor. Procedia Engineering, 53, 99–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panos, K., & Danai, G. I. (2012). Survey regarding control and reduction of construction waste, PLEA 2012-28th Conference, Opportunities Limits & Needs Towards an Environmentally Responsible Architecture, Lima, Peru, 7–9 Nov, 7–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poon, C. S., Yu, A. T. W., Wong, S. W., & Cheung, E. (2004). Management of construction waste in public housing projects in Hong Kong. Construction Management and Economics, 22(7), 675–689.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pun, S. K., Liu, C., & Langston, C. (2006). Case study of demolition costs of residential buildings. Construction Management and Economics, 24(9), 967–976.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Randell, P., Pickin, J., & Grant, B. (2014). Waste generation and resource recovery in Australia reporting period 2010/11. Canberra: Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities.

    Google Scholar 

  • RICS. (2006). Life expectancy of building components. London: BCIS.

    Google Scholar 

  • RICS. (2014). Methodology to calculate embodied carbon (1st ed.). London: RICS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheuer, C., Keoleian, G. A., & Reppe, P. (2003). Life cycle energy and environmental performance of a new university building: Modeling challenges and design implications. Energy and Buildings, 35(10), 1049–1064.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solís-Guzmán, J., Marrero, M., Montes-Delgado, M. V., & Ramírez-de-Arellano, A. A. (2009). Spanish model for quantification and management of construction waste. Waste Management, 29(9), 2542–2548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tam, V. W. Y., Shen, L. Y., & Tam, C. M. (2007). Assessing the levels of material wastage affected by sub-contracting relationships and project types with their correlations. Building and Environment, 42, 1471–1477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terry, A., & Moore, T. (2008). Waste and sustainable commercial buildings, your building, property council of Australia. http://www.yourbuilding.org/Search/Search.aspx?p=87&q=Waste+and+sustainable+commercial+buildings. Date of access 30/2/2017.

  • Thomas, D. N. (2015). The increase of timber use in residential construction in Australia: Towards a sustainable residential development model, PhD thesis, University of Technology Sydney, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tingley, D. D., & Davison, B. (2011). Design for deconstruction and material reuse. Proceedings: The Institution of Civil Engineers, 164(EN4), 195–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • US EPA. (2009). Estimating 2003 building-related construction and demolition (C&D) materials amounts. United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/cd-materials/estimating-2003-building-related-construction-and-demolition-materials-amounts. Date of access 23/2/3017.

  • US EPA. (2017). Solid waste – Laws and regulations. http://www3-epa.gov/region9/waste/solid/laws.html. Date of access: 23/2/2017.

  • Verbeeck, G., & Hens, H. (2010). Life cycle inventory of buildings: A calculation method. Building and Environment, 45, 1037–1041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WFD. (2017). Directive 2008/98/EC of the European parliament and of the council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain directives. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CEIEX:32008L0098&from=EN. Date of access: 9/1/2017.

  • Wonschik, C. R., Brennan, J., Ding, G., Heilmann, A., & Vessalas, K. (2014). Implications of legal frameworks on construction and demolition waste recycling – A comparative study of the German and Australian systems. In: Proceedings: The 31st international symposium on automation and robotics in construction and mining (pp. 523–530), Sydney, Australia, 9–11 July.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, Z., Yu, A. T. W., Shen, L., & Liu, G. (2014). Quantifying construction and demolition waste: An analytical review. Journal of Waste Management, 34, 1683–1692.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, H., Yuan, Z., Zhang, L., & Bi, J. (2012). Life cycle energy consumption and CO2 emission of an office building in China. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 17(2), 105–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeheyis, M., Hewage, K., Alam, S., Eskicioglu, C., & Sadiq, R. (2013). An overview of construction and demolition waste management in Canada: A lifecycle analysis approach to sustainability. Clean Technology Environmental Policy, 15, 81–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan, H., Lu, W., & Hao, J. J. (2013). The evolution of construction waste sorting on-site. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 20, 483–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, X., Shen, L., & Zhang, L. (2013). Life cycle assessment of the air emissions during building construction process: A case study in Hong Kong. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 17, 160–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of the Built Environment, Faculty of Design, Architecture & Building, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, Ultimo, NSW, Australia

    G. K. C. Ding

Authors
  1. G. K. C. Ding
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to G. K. C. Ding .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. REBEL (Resource Efficient Built Environment Lab), Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

    Francesco Pomponi

  2. School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland

    Catherine De Wolf

  3. School of Engineering and Innovation, Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom

    Alice Moncaster

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Ding, G.K.C. (2018). Embodied Carbon in Construction, Maintenance and Demolition in Buildings. In: Pomponi, F., De Wolf, C., Moncaster, A. (eds) Embodied Carbon in Buildings. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72796-7_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72796-7_10

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-72795-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-72796-7

  • eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation