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Methodology: How to Optimally Collect Data in the Fields

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Abstract

The methodological aspects of this chapter cover a wide range, starting with research questions to consider even before the beginning of any field research preparations; then looking at the designing of the field research itself, the techniques to apply in the field, the data analysis and evaluation methods; and also addressing issues to be mindful of regarding the presentation of the results after the return from the research. Ethical aspects play a major role throughout these aspects, as transcultural dominance effects would not only debilitate the data but could also have detrimental impacts on the indigenous people concerned. Therefore, it is necessary to apply minimally invasive techniques, which should not only go along with the researchers’ total immersion into the indigenous context but also, in most of these field situations, due to previous destruction of the indigenous culture, with rescue work. Some of the legal aspects, which have been extensively looked at in the previous chapter, such as the issue of full, free, prior and informed consent, are taken up, where necessary, along with particular articles of the UN Indigenous Rights Declaration. This chapter also reviews the common methodological concepts of validity, reliability and objectivity and their purport for our topic, looking at field encounter as quasi-experimentation, as well as at the application of qualitative and quantitative methods. With regard to the actual field research situation, socio-cognitive mechanisms pertaining to the persons involved are analysed with special attention to the constellations of influence, and the role of translators is investigated. Furthermore, researchers exemplary for the history of transcultural field encounters are referred to.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cf. <http://atlasti.com> (accessed 29 Aug. 2017).

  2. 2.

    Lewin (1951).

  3. 3.

    Those, who claimed that consciousness was just an illusion, referred to an experiment by Libet et al. (1979) on readiness potentials. But Schultze-Kraft et al. (2016) could show that our free will can veto against automatic reactions of the brain.

  4. 4.

    Cf. Watzlawick et al. (1967).

  5. 5.

    In an early twentieth-century conceptualisation, Spengler (1926, 1928) understood cultures as beings that even featured youth, maturity and senility.

  6. 6.

    The present figure is regularly updated at <ethnologue.com>.

  7. 7.

    Cf. Chomsky (1972).

  8. 8.

    In this case, I use only the male personal pronoun, as I have never encountered a female tour guide or translator in these contexts ever since the 1980s, when I started my research with indigenous peoples.

  9. 9.

    Figures vary over time; <</Spilt>ethnologue.com<Spigt>> presents regular updates.

  10. 10.

    Please see Chapter 1 of this book for the concept of the cultural spectrum.

  11. 11.

    Overview: Groh (2016a).

  12. 12.

    See also United Nations General Assembly (2014).

  13. 13.

    Schülein and Reitze (2010) give an excellent overview on epistemology and theory of science.

  14. 14.

    Attempts to call reality into question, such as radical constructivism (e.g. Watzlawick 1977), have not been long-living and did not find broad acceptance. The consent that there is a reality, regardless of individual accuracy to reflect it, is the basis for any legal system, as well as for scientific discourse (without that, the discourse itself would be redundant).

  15. 15.

    It should be noted that in some indigenous languages, the word for human being is reserved for persons of that particular cultural group sharing this mother tongue.

  16. 16.

    Greek εμπειρία, experience.

  17. 17.

    Groh (2016b).

  18. 18.

    Accordingly, this is accompanied by specific activities both in subcortical and in cortical regions (cf. e.g. Nash et al. 2014; Mauss et al. 2007; Hariri et al. 2002).

  19. 19.

    An interesting example of how to deal with endangered species in order to protect them on site and support their survival can be found regarding Wollemia nobilis. After this coniferous tree was discovered in Australia, the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Services had its seeds and seedlings distributed worldwide commercially while at the same time keeping secret the exact location of their natural habitat.

  20. 20.

    Uys, J. (1980). The gods must be crazy (109 minutes). Bloemfontein: Mimosa Films.

  21. 21.

    Boorman, J. (1985), 114 min., Los Angeles: Embassy Pictures.

  22. 22.

    Reynolds, K. (1994), 107 min., Burbank: Warner Bros.

  23. 23.

    Butler, M. & Dean, B. (2015), 100 min., Studio City, Cal.: Lightyear Entertainment.

  24. 24.

    “Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun”. Mao Zedong during a party plenary session in 1938 <https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-2/mswv2_12.htm#p1> (accessed 11 Aug. 2017).

  25. 25.

    Cf. Mummendey (1990) and Mummendey and Bolten (1985) on the Impression Management Theory.

  26. 26.

    Cf. Herman and Chomsky (1988).

  27. 27.

    I forgot where this was said to have taken place, but I probably took notice of it in connection with our ascent of the Ruwenzori – cf. note on Stuhlmann and the Bottle Camp in Bere (1952, p. 485).

  28. 28.

    The concept of the cultural spectrum has been explained in Chapter 1 of this book.

  29. 29.

    Tacumã died in 2014 <https://socioambiental.org/pt-br/blog/blog-do-isa/o-adeus-de-takuma> (accessed 26 Oct. 2017).

  30. 30.

    If you want to register the extent of body covering as a research issue to work on, the schematic registration by Jourard (1966) can be referred to, to which Morris (1977) resorted as well.

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Groh, A. (2018). Methodology: How to Optimally Collect Data in the Fields. In: Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72776-9_3

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