Abstract
Since late 2011, Iranian officials on more than one occasion have suggested that Iran would consider “closing” the Strait of Hormuz (SOH) in response to economic sanctions or an attack on its nuclear facilities. Moreover, many experts believe that in the event of an armed conflict, naval mining would likely be part of an Iranian anti-access, area denial (A2AD) strategy. As a result, policy makers and military commanders must consider options required to maintain freedom of navigation (FON) through this vital chokepoint. A thorough understanding of the legal issues related to mining is essential to formulating courses of action that will be perceived as legitimate. This article addresses the most significant legal issues and reaches three conclusions for consideration by decision makers during course of action development. Firstly, nations can lawfully conduct intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR); maintain a “fires” presence; and conduct mine warfare information-gathering activities in the SOH during peacetime. Secondly, nations may use proportionate force against assets about to mine, or in the act of mining, the SOH either in self-defense or to ensure the freedom of maritime commerce depending on the circumstances. Lastly, nations may use proportionate force in self-defense to protect assets engaged in mine hunting and sweeping, to possibly include attacking targets ashore that represent an imminent threat to the MCM forces.
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Notes
- 1.
UNCLOS (1982), Art. 39.
- 2.
Commander’s Handbook (2007), Para 2.5.3.1.
- 3.
Commander’s Handbook (2007), Para. 9.2.2.
- 4.
UNCLOS (1982), Art. 5.
- 5.
Ibid. art. 7. See also Roach and Smith (2012), p. 89.
- 6.
On November 1, 2012 Iran fired warning shots at a U.S. MQ1 Predator Drone flying 16 nm from the Iranian coastline asserting that it had entered Iranian airspace over its claimed TTS, see New York Times (2012).
- 7.
Commander’s Handbook (2007), Para. 9.2.2.
- 8.
Ibid.
- 9.
Ibid.
- 10.
See San Remo Manual, Art. 82.
- 11.
Commander’s Handbook (2007), Para. 9.2.2.
- 12.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1994).
- 13.
San Remo Manual (1995), Art. 89.
- 14.
Capaccio (2012): The U.S. Navy would move to stop any Iranian attempt to lay mines in the Strait of Hormuz or Persian Gulf as an “act of war” the international community wouldn’t tolerate, the U.S. Navy’s top Gulf commander said. “The laying of mines in international waters is an act of war,” Admiral Fox said today. “We would, under the direction of the national leadership, prevent that from happening. We always have the right and obligation of self-defense and this falls in ‘self-defense.’ See also Fox News (2008): “U.S. Navy Commander Warns Iran: Don’t Try Closing Gulf Oil Passageway”.
- 15.
Charter of the United Nations (1945), Art. 51.
- 16.
Commander’s Handbook (2007), Para. 4.4.3.1.
- 17.
- 18.
Stephens and Fitzpatrick (1999).
- 19.
Nicaragua Case (1986), Para. 253.
- 20.
Corfu Channel Case (1949), p. 22.
- 21.
- 22.
Ibid., at Para. 64.
- 23.
Ibid., at Paras. 51, 60–64.
- 24.
Ibid., at Paras. 73–77.
- 25.
Ibid., at Para. 73–77.
- 26.
- 27.
Ibid., at Para. 195.
- 28.
Oil Platforms case (2003).
- 29.
Ibid., at Paras. 73–77.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Oil Platforms case (2003), Preliminary Objection Submitted by the United States of America, Dec. 16, 1993, p. 15.
- 32.
Ibid. at 16.
- 33.
Commander’s Handbook (2007), Para. 5.5.1.
- 34.
Ibid., at Para. 4.4.3.
- 35.
Ibid., at Para. 9.2.2.
- 36.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1994), p. 76.
- 37.
Commander’s Handbook (2007), Para. 9.2.2.
- 38.
Oil Platforms case (2003), Para. 73.
- 39.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1994), pp. 71–73.
- 40.
Stephens and Fitzpatrick (1999), p. 576.
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Henseler, S.P. (2018). “Left of Splash” Legal Issues Related to the Use of Force to Counter Mining in the Strait of Hormuz. In: Schildknecht, J., Dickey, R., Fink, M., Ferris, L. (eds) Operational Law in International Straits and Current Maritime Security Challenges. Operational Maritime Law, vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72718-9_3
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