Abstract
Prize law and the law of contraband are based on the rules of peacetime public international law, especially peacetime law of the sea. The origin of prize and contraband laws is the Paris Declaration of 1856; however, they still are part of the modern humanitarian law and the law of armed conflict at sea. Many historical regulations have barely changed and remain valid today, with States showing no interest in changing them.
This chapter initially illuminates historical developments of this very unique and special aspect of naval warfare, which is the precondition for any understanding of modern rules. The Paris Declaration abolished privateering and established the distinction between the neutral and enemy characteristics of vessels as the legal basis for capture and seizure.
The second part of this chapter discusses how only civilian objects—vessels, aircraft and goods—may be subject to prize law and the law of contraband and details necessary definitions. It then focuses on conditions and different aspects of the right to visit, search and diversion that exists today. Lastly, the second part of the chapter outlines conditions for capture and seizure and the legal consequences of resistance against it.
The last section of the chapter addresses the issue of prize court proceedings.
While there may be uncertainties regarding some details, the chapter demonstrates that there is a general agreement on the core rules of prize law and law of contraband. They are in no way outdated but rather provide a very practicable framework.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsNotes
- 1.
Vitzthum (2006), para 11–13.
- 2.
Heintschel von Heinegg (2014), para 6.
- 3.
Vitzthum (2006), para 6.
- 4.
Schulz (2014), pp. 103–104.
- 5.
Kraska (2015), p. 875.
- 6.
Kraska (2012), para 2.
- 7.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), p. 493.
- 8.
Lowe and Tzanakopoulos (2013), para 1.
- 9.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), p. 482.
- 10.
Schaller (2015), para 1.
- 11.
Regarding the development of the law of naval warfare Wehberg (1915), pp. 15–18.
- 12.
Bederman (2009), paras 1–3.
- 13.
Bederman (2009), para 4.
- 14.
Paris Declaration (1856), pp. 89–90.
- 15.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 2.
- 16.
Roberts and Guelff (2000), p. 47.
- 17.
Roberts and Guelff (2000), p. 47.
- 18.
Hague VI (1907).
- 19.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), p. 486.
- 20.
Hague XI (1907).
- 21.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), pp. 485–486.
- 22.
Tucker (1957), pp. 90–91.
- 23.
Roberts and Guelff (2000), pp. 119–120.
- 24.
London Declaration (1909).
- 25.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), p. 486.
- 26.
Kraska (2012), para 19.
- 27.
Fleck (2015), para 14.
- 28.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), pp. 487–488.
- 29.
Ronzitti (2009), para 1.
- 30.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), pp. 366–367.
- 31.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), pp. 366–368.
- 32.
London Protocol (1936).
- 33.
- 34.
Ronzitti (2009), para 14.
- 35.
UNCLOS (1982).
- 36.
In detail addressing the issue which norms reflect customary international law see Harris (2004), pp. 382–384. If the author of this article refers to UNCLOS articles, he does so, recognising the customary international law character of the respective provisions.
- 37.
Bothe (2013), para 84.
- 38.
San Remo Manual (1995).
- 39.
Kraska (2015), p. 875.
- 40.
Extensively on the beginning and termination of an armed conflict Dinstein (2005), pp. 30–32.
- 41.
Kleffner (2014), paras 1201–1203.
- 42.
Extensively on the area of an armed conflict at sea Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), pp. 196–198.
- 43.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), p. 213.
- 44.
UN Charter (1945).
- 45.
Hague XIII (1907).
- 46.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), pp. 197–198.
- 47.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), p. 198.
- 48.
Treves (2009), para 10.
- 49.
Dinstein (2010), pp. 227–229.
- 50.
On the various aspects of possible zones in naval warfare Heintschel von Heinegg (2015b).
- 51.
Regarding these aspects see Fink (2010), pp. 7–45.
- 52.
Schaller (2015), para 3.
- 53.
Dinstein (2010), p. 89.
- 54.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995a), pp. 275–277.
- 55.
- 56.
Dinstein (2010), pp. 247–248.
- 57.
Dinstein (2010), pp. 247–248.
- 58.
Article 14 Cultural Property Convention (1954).
- 59.
Lagoni (2011), para 4.
- 60.
Dinstein (2010), p. 112.
- 61.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 33.
- 62.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 33.
- 63.
- 64.
Prisenordnung (1939).
- 65.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 6.
- 66.
Wolfrum (2006), para 30 ff.
- 67.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 10.
- 68.
- 69.
- 70.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 11.
- 71.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 12.
- 72.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 13.
- 73.
Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (2013), para 1027.
- 74.
According to Schaller (2015), para 19 ‘[t]he enemy or neutral character of goods carried on board an enemy merchant ship is determined by the enemy or neutral character of their owner’.
- 75.
- 76.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 13.
- 77.
Oppenheim and Lauterpacht (1952), p. 467.
- 78.
- 79.
Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research at Harvard University (2009), Rule 1 (x).
- 80.
- 81.
Kraska (2012), para 6.
- 82.
Oppenheim and Lauterpacht (1952), p. 467.
- 83.
- 84.
Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research at Harvard University (2013), rule 134, para 1.
- 85.
Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research at Harvard University (2013), rule 134, para 2.
- 86.
Kraska (2012), para 6.
- 87.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 18.
- 88.
Schulz (2014), p. 114.
- 89.
Ronzitti (2009), para 14.
- 90.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 19.
- 91.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 20.
- 92.
Doswald-Beck (1995), p. 199.
- 93.
- 94.
Tucker (1957), p. 280.
- 95.
Colombos (1963), para 898.
- 96.
Colombos (1963), para 782.
- 97.
Colombos (1963), para 783.
- 98.
- 99.
Doswald-Beck (1995), p. 200.
- 100.
- 101.
Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (2013), para 1237.
- 102.
Schaller (2015), para 24.
- 103.
Ipsen (2014), para 9.
- 104.
- 105.
Oppenheim and Lauterpacht (1952), p. 856.
- 106.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 19.
- 107.
Colombos (1963), para 884.
- 108.
Oppenheim and Lauterpacht (1952), p. 467.
- 109.
Colombos (1963), para 884.
- 110.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 18.
- 111.
Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (2013), paras 1029–1030.
- 112.
Doswald-Beck (1995), p. 205.
- 113.
Kraska (2012), para 21.
- 114.
- 115.
Different: Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (2013), para 1028.
- 116.
With examples Oppenheim and Lauterpacht (1952), pp. 478–479.
- 117.
Hague VI (1907).
- 118.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 29.
- 119.
Rowson (1947), pp. 167–168.
- 120.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 30.
- 121.
- 122.
- 123.
Kraska (2012), para 33.
- 124.
- 125.
- 126.
- 127.
- 128.
- 129.
- 130.
Doswald-Beck (1995), p. 209.
- 131.
Oppenheim and Lauterpacht (1952), p. 487.
- 132.
- 133.
- 134.
- 135.
Today see e.g. Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (2013), para 1035.
- 136.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 32.
- 137.
- 138.
Article 14 Cultural Property Convention (1954).
- 139.
Article 23 Geneva Convention IV(1949).
- 140.
- 141.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 32.
- 142.
Articles 74 and 122 ff. Geneva Convention III (1949).
- 143.
- 144.
Scheuner (1962a), p. 200.
- 145.
- 146.
- 147.
- 148.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 33.
- 149.
- 150.
Rule 153 to 155 applying rules 148 to 150 also to neutral civilian aircraft.
- 151.
- 152.
Giving a substantial overview on subject: Heintschel von Heinegg (2015a).
- 153.
Doswald-Beck (1995), p. 202.
- 154.
O’Connell (1984), p. 1109.
- 155.
Heintschel von Heinegg (2015b), para 48.
- 156.
Dinstein (2010), p. 228.
- 157.
O’Connell (1984), p. 1110.
- 158.
Schaller (2015), para 7.
- 159.
Schaller (2015), para 11.
- 160.
Colombos (1963), para 760.
- 161.
Schaller (2015), para 11.
- 162.
Schaller (2015), para 14.
- 163.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 43.
- 164.
- 165.
- 166.
Colombos (1963), para 776.
- 167.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 44.
- 168.
Scheuner (1962b), p. 291.
- 169.
Hall and Higgins (1924), p. 781.
- 170.
- 171.
- 172.
Schaller (2015), para 16.
- 173.
Doswald-Beck (1995), p. 216.
- 174.
Schaller (2015), para 16.
- 175.
Doswald-Beck (1995), p. 217.
- 176.
Schramm (1913), pp. 251–253.
- 177.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 37.
- 178.
Tucker (1957), pp. 329–330.
- 179.
Tucker (1957), p. 322.
- 180.
- 181.
Going into the details regarding the mentioned uncertain state practice Tucker (1957), pp. 325–327.
- 182.
Different: Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 40.
- 183.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 34.
- 184.
Doswald-Beckl (1995), p. 219.
- 185.
Doswald-Beck (1995), p. 219.
- 186.
The question here lies in the exact definition of the term contraband.
- 187.
Heintschel von Heinegg (1995b), p. 41.
- 188.
Colombos (1963), para 925.
- 189.
Tucker (1957), p. 347.
- 190.
- 191.
- 192.
Tucker (1957), p. 346.
- 193.
- 194.
- 195.
Colombos (1963), para 926.
- 196.
Colombos (1963), para 927.
- 197.
Roach (2015), para 24.
- 198.
Schramm (1913), p. 368.
- 199.
- 200.
Kraska (2012), para 9.
- 201.
Tucker (1957), pp. 347–348.
- 202.
Colombos (1963), para 961.
- 203.
Schindler and Toman (2004), p. 1093.
- 204.
Hague XII (1907).
- 205.
Schindler and Toman (2004), p. 1093.
- 206.
Roach (2015), para 24.
- 207.
- 208.
Treaty of Versailles (1919).
- 209.
Giving an overview how different peace treaties dealt with the matter previous prize court decisions Colombos (1963), para 689.
- 210.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969).
- 211.
On the customary law status of this section of the treaty Kohen and Heathcote (2011), p. 1017.
- 212.
Tucker (1957), p. 346.
- 213.
- 214.
- 215.
Colombos (1963), para 925.
- 216.
Kraska (2012), para 9.
References
Bederman DJ (2009) Privateering. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
Bothe M (2013) Friedenssicherung und Kriegsrecht. In: Vitzthum W, Proelß A (eds) Völkerrecht. De Gruyter, Berlin, pp 639–740
Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (2013) Zentrale Dienstvorschrift (ZDv) 15/2 - Humanitäres Völkerrecht in bewaffneten Konflikten – Handbuch. Bundesministerium der Verteidigung, Berlin
Colombos CJ (1963) Internationales Seerecht, German edn. C.H. Beck, München
Cultural Property Convention (1954) Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of an Armed Conflict, adopted May 14th 1954, 249 UNTS 240
de Oliveira Godinho F (2009) Hospital ships. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
Dinstein Y (2005) War, aggression and self-defence, 4th edn. CUP, Cambridge
Dinstein Y (2010) The conduct of hostilities under the law of international armed conflict, 2nd edn. CUP, Cambridge
Doswald-Beck L (ed) (1995) Commentary on the San Remo manual on international law applicable to armed conflicts at Sea. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Fink MD (2010) The right of visit for warships: some challenges in applying the law of maritime interdiction on the high seas. Mil Law Law War Rev 49:7–45
Fleck D (2015) London Naval Conference (1908–1909). In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
Geneva Convention II (1949) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of the Armed Forces at Sea, adopted August 12th 1949, 75 UNTS 31
Geneva Convention III (1949) Relative to the treatment of prisoners of war, adopted August 12th 1949, 75 UNTS 135
Geneva Convention IV (1949) Relative to the protection of civilian persons in time of war, adopted August 12th 1949, 75 UNTS 287
Hague VI (1907) Hague Convention (VI.) Relating to the status of enemy merchant ships at the outbreak of hostilities, adopted October 18th 1907, 2 AJIL, Supplement: Official Documents (1908)
Hague XI (1907) Hague Convention (XI.) Relative to certain restrictions with regard to the exercise of the right of capture in Naval War, adopted October 18th 1907, 2 AJIL, Supplement: Official Documents (1908)
Hague XII (1907) Hague Convention (XII.) Relative to the creation of an International Prize Court, adopted October 18th 1907, 2 AJIL, supplement: official documents (1908), pp 174–202
Hague XIII (1907) Hague Convention (XIII.) Concerning the rights and duties of neutral powers in Naval War, adopted October 18th 1907, 2 AJIL, supplement: official documents (1908), pp 202–216
Hall WE, Higgins AP (eds) (1924) A treatise on international law, 8th edn. Clarendon Press, Oxford
Harris DJ (2004) Cases and materials on international law. Sweet & Maxwell, London
Heintschel von Heinegg W (1995a) Seekriegsrecht und Neutralität im Seekrieg. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin
Heintschel von Heinegg W (ed) (1995b) Visit, search, diversion and capture. In: Bochumer Schriften zur Friedenssicherung und zum Humanitären Völkerrecht, vol 24. UVB Universitätsverlag Dr. N. Brockmeyer, Bochum
Heintschel von Heinegg W (2014) Internationales öffentliches Seerecht (Seevölkerrecht). In: Ipsen K (ed) Völkerrecht. C.H. Beck, München, pp 861–928
Heintschel von Heinegg W (2015a) Blockade. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
Heintschel von Heinegg W (2015b) War zones. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
Ipsen K (2014) Bewaffneter Konflikt und Neutralität. In: Ipsen K (ed) Völkerrecht. C.H. Beck, München, pp 1175–1258
Kleffner JK (2014) Scope of application of international humanitarian law. In: Fleck D (ed) The handbook of international humanitarian law. OUP, Oxford
Kohen M, Heathcote S (2011) Article 42 convention of 1969. In: Corten O, Klein P (eds) The Vienna convention on the law of treaties – a commentary. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 1015–1028
Kraska J (2012) Prize law. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
Kraska J (2015) Military operations. In: Rothwell DR, Elferink AGO, Scott KN, Stephens T (eds) The Oxford handbook of the law of the sea. OUP, Oxford, pp 866–887
Lagoni R (2011) Merchant ship. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
London Declaration (1909) Declaration concerning the Laws of Naval Warfare, signed February 26th 1909, 3 AJIL, Supplement: Official Documents (1909), pp 179–220
London Protocol (1936) adopted November 6th 1936, 31 AJIL, Supplement: Official Documents (1937), pp 137–139
Lowe I, Tzanakopoulos A (2013) Economic warfare. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
O’Connell DP (1984) In: Shearer IA (ed) The international law of the sea, vol 2. Oxford, Clarendon Press
Oppenheim L, Lauterpacht H (1952) International law, vol II, 7th edn. Longmans, Green & Co., London
Oxford Manual (1913) Manual of the laws of Naval War. Oxford, 9 August 1913, https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/265?OpenDocument. Accessed 27 Oct 2017
Paris Declaration (1856) Declaration respecting maritime law, adopted April 16th 1856, 1 AJIL, Supplement: Official Documents (1907)
Prisenordnung (1939) Deutsche Prisenordnung vom 28.08.1939, Reichsgesetzblatt 1939 I, p 1585. http://www.u-boote-online.de/krieg/prisenordnung/priseno/inhalt.php. Accessed 27 Oct 2017
Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research at Harvard University (2009) HPCR manual on the international law applicable to air and missile warfare
Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research at Harvard University (2013) Commentary on the HPCR manual on the international law applicable to air and missile warfare. CUP, New York
Roach JA (2000) The law of naval warfare at the turn of two centuries. Am J Int Law 94:64–77
Roach JA (2015) Neutrality in naval warfare. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
Roberts A, Guelff R (eds) (2000) Documents on the law of war
Ronzitti N (2009) Naval warfare. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
Rowson WD (1947) Prize law during the Second World War. Br Year B Int Law 24:160–215
San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea (1995) Available on the Homepage of the ICRC: https://www.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/560?OpenDocument, latest visit July 10th, 2017
Schaller C (2015) Contraband. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
Scheuner (1962a) Beuterecht im Seekrieg. In: Schlochauer H-J (ed) Wörterbuch des Völkerrechts, vol 1, 2nd edn. De Gruyter, Berlin, pp 199–201
Scheuner (1962b) Konterbandrecht. In: Schlochauer H-J (ed) Wörterbuch des Völkerrechts, vol 2, 2nd edn. De Gruyter, Berlin, p 291
Schindler D, Toman J (eds) (2004) The laws of armed conflicts. Brill-Nijhoff, Leiden
Schramm (1913) Das Prisenrecht in seiner neuesten Gestalt. Ernst Siegfried Mittler und Sohn, Berlin
Schulz M (2014) Autonomie zur See. In: Frau R (ed) Drohnen und das Recht. Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, pp 103–118
Treaty of Versailles (1919) Treaty of Peace with Germany, adopted June 28th 1919, 1 ATS 1, https://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/m-ust000002-0043.pdf. Accessed 27 Oct 2017
Treves T (2009) High seas. In: Wolfrum R (ed) Max Planck encyclopedia of public international law. OUP, Oxford
Tucker RW (1957) The law of war and neutrality at sea. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC
UN Charter (1945) Charter of the United Nations, adopted June 26th 1945, UN Conference on International Organization Doc., vol XV (1945), p 335
UNCLOS (1982) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, adopted December 10th 1982, 1833 UNTS 3
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) Adopted May 23rd 1969, 1155 UNTS 331, https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%201155/volume-1155-i-18232-english.pdf. Accessed 27 Oct 2017
Vitzthum W (2006) Kapitel 1. Begriff, Geschichte und Rechtsquellen des Seerechts. In: Vitzthum W (ed) Handbuch des Seerechts. C.H. Beck, München
von Schmeling E (2014) Rechtsprobleme des Einsatzes von unbemannten ‘Kriegsschiffen’. Neue Zeitschrift für Wehrrecht 56:235–254
Wehberg H (1915) Das Seekriegsrecht. In: Stier-Somlo (ed) Handbuch des Völkerrechts, vol 6. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart
Wolfrum R (2006) Kapitel 4. Hohe See und Tiefseeboden (Gebiet). In: Vitzthum W (ed) Handbuch des Seerechts. C.H. Beck, München
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 This is a U.S. government work and its text is not subject to copyright protection in the United States; however, its text may be subject to foreign copyright protection
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Schulz, M. (2018). Prize Law and Contraband in Modern Naval Warfare. In: Schildknecht, J., Dickey, R., Fink, M., Ferris, L. (eds) Operational Law in International Straits and Current Maritime Security Challenges. Operational Maritime Law, vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72718-9_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72718-9_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-72717-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-72718-9
eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)