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John Ruskin's Politics and Natural Law pp 221–257Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

The Condition of Political Virtue: Co-operative Individualism and Civil Association

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Abstract

This chapter summarizes Ruskin’s thought and the way in which an account of Christian virtue informs that thought and his political outlook. Recognized to adhere to a conservative British tradition favourable to mixed government, episcopacy and legally constituted class relations, his reform advocacy favoured the cultivation of a kind of individualism steeped in an older legal ‘respect for the person’, shaped by co-operative working and social relationships. This condition is at odds with the ego-driven ethics required by many modern commercial practices and related institutions. Such virtuosic and ‘possessive’ individualism is contrasted with the modest qualities of enjoyment which fall to the well-habituated individual content with work and place.

The best Party is but a kind of a Conspiracy against the rest of the Nation.

—George Seville, Marquess of Halifax Maxims (1700)

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For critical reactions to Ruskin’s works, see Bradley, ed. (1984), 34–195. On the importance of sermons and tracts in Victorian England, see George P. Landow, The Aesthetic and Critical Theories of John Ruskin (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1971) Ch. 4; Dinah Birch, ‘Ruskin’s Multiple Writing: Fors Clavigera’ in Birch, ed. (1999), 179.

  2. 2.

    Works, 34: 565; and see Sydney Smith, Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy (New York: Harper and Bros. 1850).

  3. 3.

    See Michael Wheeler, Ruskin’s God (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

  4. 4.

    Works, 12: 529–32.

  5. 5.

    R.G. Collingwood, Ruskin’s Philosophy (Kendal: Titus Wilson, 1922).

  6. 6.

    See Ruskin’s essay ‘Traffic’ in The Crown of Wild Olive. Works, 18: 433–58.

  7. 7.

    The Bible of Amiens (1885), Works, 33: 112.

  8. 8.

    Works, 27: 45–46.

  9. 9.

    Stuart Eagles, After Ruskin: The Social and Political Legacies of a Victorian Prophet, 1870–1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 53.

  10. 10.

    See H.A.L. Hart, The Concept of Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), 193–200, and the supplementary essays in A.P. d’Entrèves, Natural Law: An Introduction to Legal Philosophy. (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1994); and Michael B. Crowe, The Changing Profile of the Natural Law (The Hague: Martinus Hijhoff, 1977), 275–77.

  11. 11.

    Works, 8: 71.

  12. 12.

    Aristotle credited Zeno with this important insight of stability in the midst of change. See Shirley Letwin, ‘Nature, History and Morality’ in R.S. Peters, ed., Nature and Conduct (London: Macmillan, 1975), 230.

  13. 13.

    Works: 28:30.

  14. 14.

    Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 2007), 268.

  15. 15.

    Works, 11: 133. On the question of apathy, see Edward Alexander, Matthew Arnold, John Ruskin and the Modern Temper (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1973), Ch. 3.

  16. 16.

    On the uses of Hooker in England, see Lee W. Gibbs, ‘Richard Hooker’s Via Media Doctrine of Scripture and Tradition’, Harvard Theological Review, 95 (2) (2002), 40–70.

  17. 17.

    James Dearden, The Library of John Ruskin (Oxford: Oxford Bibliographical Society, 2012), 73.

  18. 18.

    On ‘Great Tew’, see H.R. Trevor-Roper, ‘The Great Tew Circle’, in his Catholics, Anglicans and Puritans: 17th Century Essays (London: Secker and Warburg, 1987), 166–230.

  19. 19.

    Works, 16: 54–56; see the detailed discussions of these frescoes in Rubinstein (1958), 179–207, Skinner (1985), and Starn (1994).

  20. 20.

    See William M. Bowsky, A Medieval Commune: Siena under the Nine, 1287–1355 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981).

  21. 21.

    Works, 27: 79–198. See also section six of Mornings in Florence, for Ruskin’s treatment of Giotto and the virtues portrayal in the Shepherd’s Tower in Florence. Works, 23: 409–35.

  22. 22.

    See Works, 23: xlvii; 26, 225; 33: xxii.

  23. 23.

    Cary J. Nederman, ‘Freedom, Community and Function: Communitarian Lessons of Medieval Political Theory’, American Political Science Review, 86 (4) (1992), 977–86.

  24. 24.

    Ibid., 980.

  25. 25.

    Works, 16:105.

  26. 26.

    See Cary J. Nederman, ‘A Duty to Kill: John of Salisbury’s Theory of Tyrannicide’, Review of Politics, 51 (1988), 365–89; see Appendix 3 of this study for the text of the Creed of the Guild of St. George.

  27. 27.

    Works, 17: 235. Ruskin drew attention to Hesiod’s account of the three cloth-weaving sisters of fate, Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos, in the last volume of Modern Painters. Works, 7: 394.

  28. 28.

    Works, 17: 235; and see Michael Oakeshott, On Human Conduct (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), 146–7.

  29. 29.

    Francis C. Montague, Arnold Toynbee (Baltimore: John Hopkins University, 1889), 14; E.T.Cook, The Life of Ruskin (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1911), II: 191.

  30. 30.

    See H. F. Kearney, ‘Arnold Toynbee: Challenge and Response’, University Review, 1 (4) (1955), 33–41; William H. Mc Neill, Arnold J. Toynbee (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 286–88.

  31. 31.

    Frederick W. Maitland, The Constitutional History of England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1913), 6; Tryggvi J. Oleson, The Witengemot in the Reign of Edward the Confessor (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1955), 110–13; J.G.A. Pocock, The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), Ch. 2.

  32. 32.

    Corine C. Weston, Subjects and Sovereigns: The Grand Controversy over Sovereignty in Stuart England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 3; and R.L. Schuyler and Corine C. Weston, Cardinal Documents in British History (New York: Van Nostrand, 1961), 78–81.

  33. 33.

    Works, 29: 263.

  34. 34.

    Robert S. Bosher, The Making of the Restoration Settlement: The Influence of the Laudians, 1649–1662 (London: Dacre Press, 1957); Doreen J. Milne, ‘The Results of the Rye House Plot and Their Influence upon the Revolution of 1688’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 5th Series, 1 (1951), 91–108.

  35. 35.

    See Philip P. McKeiver, A New History of Cromwell’s Irish Campaign (Manchester: Advance Press, 2007).

  36. 36.

    See Shelley Burtt, Virtue Transformed: Political Argument in England, 1688–1740 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 87–98; Isaac Kramnick, Bolingbroke and His Circle: The Politics of Nostalgia in the Age of Walpole (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968), 30–36; Quinton (1978), 41–44.

  37. 37.

    Aspects of this rationalizing element are well explored in Basil Willey, The Eighteenth Century Background (London: Chatto and Windus, 1940). See also Creed and Boys-Smith, (1934).

  38. 38.

    George Every, The High Church Party, 1680–1718 (London: S.P.C.K. 1956), Ch. 1.

  39. 39.

    Works, 27: 586 n; 35: 61,151. For reviews of Ruskin’s knowledge of eighteenth-century texts and art, see Henry Ladd, The Victorian Morality of Art (New York: Ray Long and Richard R. Smith Inc. 1932), Ch. 4, and Landow (1971), 98–105.

  40. 40.

    Kramnick (1968), 222; Works, 16: 446–7.

  41. 41.

    See the essays in, Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatieff, eds., Wealth and Virtue: The Shaping of Political Economy in the Scottish Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

  42. 42.

    Particularly when writing The Bible of Amiens and Our Fathers Have Told Us. See Works, 33, and Dearden (2012), 129.

  43. 43.

    See the essay on Vico by Isaiah Berlin in The Crooked Timber of Humanity (London: Fontana Press, 1991), 49–69.

  44. 44.

    The influence of Scott on Ruskin was significant. Of many uncompleted works, a biography of Scott was one, towards which he had accumulated much material. See Works, 13: 446; 34: 305; 27: 531, 561–621. On the nature of the tension in eighteenth-century Enlightenment thought, see Jonathan Israel, A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press 2010), Chapters 5 to 7.

  45. 45.

    See Harold Nicolson, The Congress of Vienna (London: Constable, 1948), 276–77.

  46. 46.

    Peter Stanlis, Edmund Burke and the Natural Law (Ann Arbor: Michigan State University Press, 1965), Ch. 3.

  47. 47.

    Mark Jarrett, The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon (London: I. B. Tauris, 2013), 173.

  48. 48.

    René Albrecht-Carrié, A Diplomatic History of Europe since the Congress of Vienna (New York: Harper, 1958), 65–68, 84–106.

  49. 49.

    See John Plamenatz, The English Utilitarians (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1966), Chaps. 4–8; Elie Halévy, The Growth of Philosophic Radicalism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955), 313–72.

  50. 50.

    J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition. With a new Afterword. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003); Hans Baron, ‘The Florentine Revival of the Philosophy of the Active Political Life’ in: In Search of Florentine Humanism: Essays in the Transition from Medieval to Modern Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 134–57.

  51. 51.

    Pocock (2003), 383–400, and Antony Black, Guilds and Civil Society in European Political Thought from the Twelfth Century to the Present (Ithica: Cornell University Press, 1984), 147–50.

  52. 52.

    Alisdair MacIntyre, (2007), Ch. 15; Ruskin, Works, 16: 55–57. See Appendix 2 of this study.

  53. 53.

    Richard Pares, Limited Monarchy in Great Britain in the Eighteenth Century (London: The Historical Association, London, 1971).

  54. 54.

    Works, 17: 327, 331; 34: 159. See Wallace Notestein, ‘The Wining of the Initiative by the House of Commons’ in Lucy S. Sutherland, ed., Studies in History (London Oxford University Press, 1966), 145–203.

  55. 55.

    Works, 17: 404; 23: 353; 27: 649. On the affinity of much evangelical opinion with laissez-faire economic thought in the first half of the nineteenth century, see A.M.C. Waterman, Revolution, Economics and Religion: Christian Political Economy, 1798–1833 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), Chapters. 5, 6; Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1785–1865 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), Ch. 2; Richard Brent, ‘God’s Providence: Liberal Political Economy as Natural Theology at Oxford, 1825–1862’, in Bentley, ed. (1993), 85–107.

  56. 56.

    Works, 18: 550.

  57. 57.

    See Edmund Burke, ‘Speech to the Electors of Bristol’ 3 Nov. 1774. Works of Edmund Burke, (Boston, Wm. Estes, 1889) 1:446–48. It is not clear whether Ruskin ever read Burke’s speech.

  58. 58.

    Works, 17: 325–26.

  59. 59.

    See Works, 29: 137; 30: xxxiii, 8–9. That Ruskin did not always adhere to his own principles in this regard has been made clear in Mark Frost, The Lost Companions and Ruskin’s Guild of St. George (London: Antham Press, 2014).

  60. 60.

    Nederman, (1992), 978.

  61. 61.

    See Charles Gide and Charles Rist, A History of Economic Doctrines (Boston: D.C. Heath, 1915), 479–83, 641–2; Rudolf Rocker, Anarcho -Syndicalism (London: Pluto Press, 1989), Ch. 3; Bob Holton, British Syndicalism, 1900–14: Myths and Realities (London: Pluto Press, 1976).

  62. 62.

    On Aristotle’s initial classifications, see Barker, ed., The Politics of Aristotle (London: Oxford University Press, 1958), 11.

  63. 63.

    See his early reflections on such principles in Ruskin to J .J. Ruskin, 1845, Works, 36: 55–57, reproduced in Appendix 2 of this study. See also Works, 12: 550–54.

  64. 64.

    See Bosher (1957).

  65. 65.

    Works, 12: xxiii, 527n; 28: 469.

  66. 66.

    See J. A. Froude, Carlyle’s Life in London (New York: Charles Scribner’s 1884), I: 338–43.

  67. 67.

    See Thomas Carlyle, My Irish Journey in 1849. J.A. Froude, ed. (New York: Harper Bros. 1882). This work was not published in Carlyle’s lifetime but was brought together by Froude from Carlyle’s original notes. See also Fred Kaplan, Thomas Carlyle: A Biography (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), Ch. 13; Julie M. Dugger, Black Ireland’s Race: Thomas Carlyle and the Young Ireland Movement’ Victorian Studies, 48 (3) (2006), 461–85.

  68. 68.

    For Ruskin’s views on Ireland , see Works; 8: 267–69; 9: 423–24; 18: 173–74; 29: 403–4; and see Sherburne (1972), 204–5.

  69. 69.

    On the motives of those who promoted the Union Acts of 1800, see Alan J. Ward, The Irish Constitutional Tradition: Responsible Government and Modern Ireland, 1782–1992 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1994), 20–29; on Anglo-French relations after 1830, see Norman Gash, Aristocracy and People:Britain, 1815–1865 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979), 292–3.

  70. 70.

    Works, 17: 443–45. Ruskin was referring to Mill’s pamphlet England and Ireland (1867).

  71. 71.

    See Philip Bull, Land, Politics and Nationalism: A Study of the Irish Land Question (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1996), 54–93.

  72. 72.

    See Appendix 2 of this study.

  73. 73.

    Cf. Baron (1988); Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought: Volume One: The Renaissance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Pocock (2003).

  74. 74.

    Pocock (2003), 392–95.

  75. 75.

    Black (1984), 81–83; Tierney (1997), Ch. 13; Nederman (2009), 52–3.

  76. 76.

    See Letwin, (1975), 230.

  77. 77.

    E.R. Norman, The Victorian Christian Socialists (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 134; Works, 27: 14–15; 29: 337.

  78. 78.

    On Fabian interest in Ruskin, see Edith J. Morley, John Ruskin and Social Ethics. Fabian Tract No. 179. (London: Fabian Society, 1917).

  79. 79.

    C.F.G. Ma sterman, ‘Ruskin the Prophet’ in W.H. Whitehouse, ed. Ruskin the Prophet. (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1920), 51; Lucy Masterman, C.F.G. Masterman (London: Nicolson and Watson, 1939), 314–15.

  80. 80.

    Works, 18: 381.

  81. 81.

    Norman (1987), 124–25. The author, however, underestimates the importance that Ruskin gave to a revived national church as a factor in public policy.

  82. 82.

    Works, 28: 420n.

  83. 83.

    ‘John Ruskin and the Working Classes in Mid-Victorian Britain’, in Keith Hanley, and Brian Maidment, eds. Persistent Ruskin: Studies in Influence, Assimilation and Effect. Surrey: Ashgate, 2013), 15–32.

  84. 84.

    Works, 27: 50.

  85. 85.

    This suggested expression contrasts with what C.B. MacPherson described as ‘possessive individualism’ recognized as the fundamental social ethic of the post-Hobbesian world in England. See MacPherson (1962).

  86. 86.

    Antony Black, ‘The Individual and Society’ in J.H. Burns, ed., The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought, c. 350-c.1450 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 591.

  87. 87.

    John of Viterbo, De Regimene Civitatum, cited in Black (1988), 591.

  88. 88.

    Ruskin to Norton, 27 Dec., 1872, and Norton to Ruskin, 29 Dec.,1872, in J.L. Bradley, and Ian Ousby, eds. The Correspondence of John Ruskin and Charles Elliot Norton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 270–72.

  89. 89.

    Jesse Norman, Edmund Burke: The First Conservative (New York: Basic Books, 2013), Ch. 9.

  90. 90.

    ‘Roman Inundations’ The Daily Telegraph, 12 Jan., 1871, in Works, 17: 547.

  91. 91.

    Works, 22: 147.

  92. 92.

    Deucalion, II in Works, 26: 339.

  93. 93.

    See Joan Abse, John Ruskin: The Passionate Moralist (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1980) 200–01.

  94. 94.

    Works, 27: 90–91.

  95. 95.

    Works, 27: 92–3.

  96. 96.

    On Geddes, see Francis O’Gorman, ‘Ruskin’s Science of the 1870s: Science, Education and the Nation’, in Dinah Birch, ed., Ruskin and the Dawn of the Modern (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 45–6; Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of Tomorrow [1904] (Cambridge MA: M.I.T. Press 1965); Meryle Secrest, Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography (New York: Knopf, 1992), 127–30; Rosenberg (1961), 71–76.

  97. 97.

    John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy: Book IV, Ch. 6. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1965), 752–57; MacDonald (2012), 125–50; Jonsson (2017), 186–210.

  98. 98.

    Ibid., 752.

  99. 99.

    See Frederick A. Jonsson, ‘Island, nation, planet: Malthus in the Enlightenment’ in Robert J. Meyhew, ed., New Perspectives on Malthus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 128–152.

  100. 100.

    Mark Blaug, ‘The Myth of the Old Poor Law and the Making of the New’, The Journal of Economic History, 23 (2) (1963), 151–184.

  101. 101.

    Mendilow (1986), Chapters 1 and 2; Craig (2007), Ch 8.

  102. 102.

    Works, 27: 91.

  103. 103.

    G.F.G . Masterman, ‘Ruskin the Prophet’ in Whitehouse, ed. (1920), 52–3.

  104. 104.

    See Isaac Broome, The Last Days of the Ruskin Cooperative Association (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 1902); W. F. Brundage, A Socialist Utopia in the New South: The Ruskin Colonies in Tennessee and Georgia, 1894–1901(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); Fred Braches, Charles Whetham: A Remarkable Resident of Ruskin. Whonnock Notes No. 18. (Whannock, BC: 2012).

  105. 105.

    E.J. Mishan, The Costs of Economic Growth (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd., 1969); Donella H. Meadows, The Limits to growth: A report for the Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind (New York: Universe Books, 1972); Herman E. Daly, Steady State Economics, 2d. ed. (Washington DC: Island Press, 1991).

  106. 106.

    Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities (Boston: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1938), 269–72, 542.

  107. 107.

    Spence (1957), 200.

  108. 108.

    Scott (1931), 109–10.

  109. 109.

    Works, 17: 438; 29: 494; Margaret Cole, Beatrice Webb (New York: Harcourt and Brace, 1946), 132–33.

  110. 110.

    Differences in approach between the independent guild of Ruskin, and others, and the co-operative movement proper, are outlined in, Cole (1946), Ch. 4.

  111. 111.

    As argued in MacPherson (1962); and see Works, 17: 285.

  112. 112.

    Examples of such ‘cooperative individuals’ are described in Peter Wardle and Cedric Quayle, Ruskin and Bewdley (St. Albans: Brentham Press, 1989), and in Edith Hope Scott, Ruskin’s Guild of St. George (London: Methuen, 1931).

  113. 113.

    José Harris, ‘Ruskin and Social Reform’ in Birch, ed. (1999), 8.

  114. 114.

    See Laurence Goldman, ‘Ruskin, Oxford and the British Labour Movement, 1880–1914’, in Birch, ed. (1999), 57–8; Alan Lee, ‘Ruskin and Political Economy’, in Hewison, ed. (1981), 83.

  115. 115.

    Harris (1999) in Birch, ed. (1999), 29–30.

  116. 116.

    Works, 16: 22–23.

  117. 117.

    Works, 16: 25–26.

  118. 118.

    Frost, (2014).

  119. 119.

    This psychological element is stressed in A.L. Goodhart, English Law and the Moral Law. The Hamlyn Lectures, Fourth Series. (London: A. Stevens, 1953), 22–23.

  120. 120.

    See Malcolm I. Thomis and Peter Hold, Threats of Revolution in Britain, 1789–1848 (Hamdon: Archon Books, 1977), Ch. 1.

  121. 121.

    On the wide range of services provided locally in traditional England, see Tate (1969).

  122. 122.

    Lyon Playfair, Memoirs and Correspondence (London: Cassell, 1899), 64.

  123. 123.

    Fitzjames Stephen to Lytton, 6 May, 1880, cited in Donald Southgate, The Passing of the Whigs, 1832–1886 (London: Macmillan, 1965), xvi.

  124. 124.

    Works, 17: 231–33. Cf. the account provided in ‘The Authority of the State’ in, Michael Oakeshott, Religion, Politics and the Moral Life, Timothy Fuller, ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 74–90.

  125. 125.

    Works, 17: 75;18: 359, 478.

  126. 126.

    Works, 12: 178.

  127. 127.

    Works, 17: 75;18: 359, 478; 29: 234–41.

  128. 128.

    Gervase Rosser, The Art of Solidarity in the Middle Ages: Guilds in England, 1250–1550 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 187.

  129. 129.

    For a thoughtful exploration of this theme in more global terms, see William H. McNeill, Keeping Together in Time: Dance and Drill in Human History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).

  130. 130.

    Ibid., 152.

  131. 131.

    Noel Annan, The Curious Strength of Positivism in English Political Thought (London: Oxford University Press, 1959).

  132. 132.

    Ibid., 10–14; F. C . Montague, Arnold Toynbee (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1889), 11–14, 35–45.

  133. 133.

    Annan (1959), 10, and see William M. Johnston, The Formative Years of R.G. Collingwood (The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff, 1967), 17–30.

  134. 134.

    Annan (1959), 13.

  135. 135.

    Oscar Wilde, The Soul of Man Under Socialism (New York: Humboldt, 1891), 7.

  136. 136.

    Footnote references to Ruskin’s writings (unless otherwise stated) are cited as Works, and refer to Cook, Edward T. and Wedderburn, Alexander, eds. The Collected Works of John Ruskin. London: 1903–1912. 39 v.

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    Graham A. MacDonald

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MacDonald, G.A. (2018). The Condition of Political Virtue: Co-operative Individualism and Civil Association. In: John Ruskin's Politics and Natural Law. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72281-8_8

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