Conclusion: Return to the Old

Frey, Linda; Frey, Marsha

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71709-8_8

Linda Frey⁶ &
Marsha Frey⁷

Part of the book series: Studies in Diplomacy and International Relations ((SID))

258 Accesses

Abstract

The revolutionaries had challenged both the assumptions and practices of the old order; they contested the traditional norms of etiquette, dress, and language. Confrontational diplomacy proved an oxymoron. As the gales of revolution swept through France, the new diplomacy increasingly resembled the old as the revolutionaries found themselves making compromises. After Thermidor the revolutionaries found themselves violating previously declared principles. The Directory had an even more pragmatic emphasis. The same geostrategic concerns dominated policy. Realpolitik prevailed. Revolutionaries increasingly adopted practices they had earlier derided; they adopted a more elaborate ceremony and etiquette, they resorted to bribery and espionage, and they insisted on precedence. Although the revolutionaries continued to espouse revolutionary principles, the dream of transforming the international system remained just that.

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Notes

1.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 88.
2.
Metternich, Memoirs, 2: 235.
3.
Emile Durkheim , The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: A Study in Religious Sociology, trans. Joseph Wood Ward Swain (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1947), 423.
4.
Ibid., 63.
5.
Edmund Burke quoted in Chapman, Edmund Burke, 186.
6.
Niccolo Machiavelli , The Prince, ch. 6, in The Chief Works and Others, translated by Allan Gilbert (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1965), 26.
7.
Furet , Interpreting the French Revolution, 25–26, 16–17.
8.
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9.
Dale Van Kley, “The Ancien Régime, Catholic Europe, and the Revolution’s Religious Schism,” in A Companion to the French Revolution, edited by Peter McPhee, 123–143 (London: Blackwell, 2013), 138.
10.
Verena Steller, “The Power of Protocol: On the Mechanisms of Symbolic Action in Diplomacy in Franco-German Relations, 1871–1914,” in The Diplomats World, ed. Mösslung and Riotte, 200.
11.
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12.
Martin, “Le Comité diplomatique,” 18 underscores that “the principles of the droit des gens remained entirely subordinated to the exigencies of the national interest.”
13.
Windler, “Réseaux personnels,” 90.
14.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 674.
15.
Alexis de Tocqueville , The Old Regime and the French Revolution, x.
16.
Bély , L’Art de la paix en Europe, 657.
17.
Cambacères quoted in Sorel , L’Europe et la Révolution française, 4: 265.
18.
Merlin to Jean Baptiste Lallement quoted in Sorel , L’Europe et la Révolution française, 4: 268.
19.
A. A. E., États-Unis, CP 44, fol. 385, from Minister of Foreign Relations, 27 brumaire, an 4. See also circular of 5 brumaire, an III (26 October 1794), quoted in Martin, “Les Enjeux diplomatiques,” 6–7 and the redefinition of diplomats as not only political agents but also as “a cultural vehicle.”
20.
Debidour, ed., Recueil des actes du Directoire exécutif, 1: 417, instructions to Perignon , ambassador of the republic in Spain , 13 January 1796.
21.
B. L., Add. Mss. 59025, John Trevor to Lord Grenville , fol. 92 Richmond, 24 November 1798.
22.
France, Bulletin des lois de la République, an II, no. 237, 6 fructidor.
23.
Aulard, ed., Recueil des actes du Comité de salut public, 4: 185–186, meeting of 16 May 1793.
24.
Devon Record Office, CP 453, John Stuart, 4th earl of Bute to Drake, Madrid, 5 January 1796.
25.
Moniteur, 24: 292–293, 4 floréal 1795.
26.
Chapuisat, De la Terreur à l’annexation, 201–202, 21 prairial, an V.
27.
P.R.O., FO 27/49, fol. 248 Harris , 6 July 1797 and fol. 279–282 of 11 July 1797.
28.
Marc Belissa , “La Paix impossible?” Le Débat sur les négociations franco-anglaises sous le Directoire et la Consulat,” in Le Négoce de la paix. Les nations et les traités franco-britanniques (1713–1802), edited by Jean-Pierre Jessenne, Renaud Morieux , et Pascal Dupuy (Paris: Société des études Robespierristes, 2008), 100.
29.
Dry, Soldats ambassadeurs, 1: 30–31.
30.
Burke, Works, 6: 48.
31.
Barras , Memoirs, 3: 511, thermidor, an VII (July–August 1798).
32.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 79 and 92.
33.
Maurice Herbette, Un Ambassade turque sous le Directoire (Paris: Perrin et cie, 1902), 110–131.
34.
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35.
Herbette, Un Ambassade turque sous le Directoire, 138, Le Véridique.
36.
Dry, Soldats ambassadeurs, 2: 395–396.
37.
Miot de Melito, Memoirs, 131–132.
38.
See for example, Talleyrand, Lettres inédites, 17, 19, 109, 137.
39.
Jackson, Diaries and Letters, 1: 18–19, 23 November 1801.
40.
Oscar Browning, ed., Being the Despatches of Lord Whitworth and Others (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1887), 21–22, 26. On the irritability of the First Consul, triggered by a perceived insult to a French representative in Sweden, see 77–78, Paris, 17 February 1803.
41.
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42.
Miot de Melito, Memoirs, 161, 247–249, 282.
43.
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44.
Palluel, ed. Dictionnaire de l’Empereur, 913–914, Paris, 22 September 1807. Title XIII of the imperial decree of 24 messidor, an XII (1814), that regulated public ceremonial dealt with French and foreign ambassadors. France, Bulletin des lois de l’Empire française, 4th series, vol. 1, bulletin #10, #110.
45.
Palluel, ed. Dictionnaire de l’Empereur, 913, Paris, 22 August 1807.
46.
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47.
Miot de Melito, Memoirs, 337.
48.
Madeleine Delpierre, “Les Costumes de cour et les uniformes civils du Premier Empire,” Musée Carnavalet, 11 (November 1958): 2–22.
49.
Napoléon, Correspondance, 8: 69, Saint Cloud 26 vendemaire, an XI (18 October 1802).
50.
Palluel, ed. Dictionnaire de l’Empereur, 58, Paris, 26 janvier 1812.
51.
A. A. E., CP, États-Unis, vol. 46, part 4, fols. 427–429.
52.
J. F. Bernard, Talleyrand: A Biography (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1973), 205.
53.
Ibid., 205–207.
54.
Grandmaison, L’Ambassade française en Espagne pendant la Révolution (1789–1804), 125.
55.
Dard, Un Épicurien sous la terreur, 235.
56.
Miot de Melito, Memoirs, 32.
57.
Dry, Soldats ambassadeurs sous le Directoire, 1: 26–27.
58.
Masson, Le Département des affaires étrangères, 348.
59.
Kittstein, Politik im Zeitalter der Revolution, 136, quotes Jacobi to Sandoz, 18 October 1798, and Jacobi to Sandoz, 4 February 1799.
60.
Harris , Diaries and Correspondence, 3: 346 Paris, Harris to Grenville , 14 December 1796.
61.
Miot de Melito, Memoirs, 32.
62.
After fructidor 1797, Carnot refuted the charge that he had suggested not sending ambassadors to various courts. He claimed that the Directors on the contrary “by their puerile haughtiness of conduct toward the envoys of foreign courts, expose those of the Republic to humiliating retaliations” and undermine the possibility of peace. Reply of L. N. M. Carnot , Citizen of France, one of the Founders of the republic, and constitutional Member of the Executive Directory (London: J. Wright, 1799), 89–90.
63.
Napoléon, Correspondance, 6: 427, to Talleyrand, Paris, 28 July 1800.
64.
Walt, Revolution and War, 97.
65.
Martin, “Les Enjeux diplomatiques,” 5.
66.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix d’l’Europe, 81.
67.
Dry, Soldats ambassadeurs sous le Directoire, 1: 60–61.
68.
Lacour-Gayet, Talleyrand, 2: 42.
69.
Napoléon, Correspondance, 16: 411, Napoleon to Jerome , 11 March 1808.
70.
Masson, Le Département des affaires étrangères, 495.
71.
Ibid., 159.
72.
Ibid., 497.
73.
Baillou, Lucet, Vimont, Jacques, eds., Les Affaires étrangères et le corps diplomatique français, 279–363 and Frey and Frey, Proven Patriots, 91.
74.
Masson, Le Département des affaires étrangères, 384–386.
75.
Outry, “Histoire et principes de l’administration française des affaires étrangères,” 494.
76.
Lacour-Gayet, Talleyrand, 2: 42.
77.
Ibid., 2: 31.
78.
Savage, “Foreign Policy and Political Culture in Later Eighteenth-Century France,” 323.
79.
Sorel , Europe and the French Revolution, 525.
80.
Blanning , The Origins of the French Revolutionary Wars, 175.
81.
Bernard, Talleyrand, 197.
82.
Lincolnshire Archives, Worsley Papers, 14, fol. 178 Worsley to Grenville , Venice 3 May 1797.
83.
Napoléon, Correspondance, 3: 399–401, #2318.
84.
Bernard, Talleyrand, 197.
85.
Pallain, ed., Le Ministère de Talleyrand sous le Directoire, 188, Talleyrand to Jean Baptiste Treilhard, 5 nivôse, an VI.
86.
Sorel , Europe and the French Revolution, 526.
87.
Paul Viollet quoted in Bertrand de Jouvenel , On Power: the Natural History of its Growth, translated by J. F. Huntington (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1993), 242.
88.
Jouvenel , On Power, 123.
89.
Gibbon quoted in ibid., 260.
90.
Buchez and Roux, Histoire parlementaire, 6: 65, Goupil de Prefeln, 27 May 1790.
91.
Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de l’Europe, 88.
92.
Hagley, W3–322, Victor Du Pont to Letombe, 21 pluviôse V, [9 February 1797].
93.
Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime, 6.
94.
Stone, The Genesis of the French Revolution, 238.
95.
R. R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled (Princeton: University Press, 1941), 104.
96.
Ibid., 340. Reference to modern Carthage, A. A. E., CP, États-Unis, vol. 44, part III, fol. 253, Adet to Randolph, Philadelphia, 23 thermidor, an III. Also see Adet’s reference, it is necessary above all to destroy “this universal Carthage” in A. A. E., CP, États-Unis 44, part 4, fol. 394 Adet, Philadelphia, 29 brumaire, an 4. Or Cloots “C’est en Hollande qu nous détruirons Carthage,” in Piers Mackesy, Statesmen at War (London: Longman, 1974), 36.
97.
Stone , The Genesis of the French Revolution, 238. On Anglophobia see Frances Acomb, Anglophobia in France, 1763–1789: An Essay in the History of Constitutional and Nationalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1950).
98.
Acomb, Anglophobia in France, 1763–1789, 115. Camille Desmoulins remarked that “[w]e shall go beyond these English, who are so proud of their constitution and who mocked at our servitude.” Ibid., p. 121.
99.
La Harpe , Correspondance, 1: 136, 14 floréal, an V, 3 May 1797.
100.
Bell , The Cult of the Nation in France, 100–101.
101.
Ibid., 101.
102.
Denis Woronoff, The Thermidorean Reaction and the Directory, translated by Julian Jackson (Cambridge: University Press, 1972).
103.
Belissa , “‘La Paix impossible?’” in Le Négoce de la paix, ed. Jessenne, Morieux , and Dupuy, 95–109.
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Harvey Mitchell, The Underground War against Revolutionary France: The Missions of William Wickham, 1794–1800 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), 31.
105.
P.R.O., FO 353/64, Robert Liston , London, 29 April 1793.
106.
Quoted in Jouvenel , On Power, 244. On that same page Jouvenel remarks, “And the war was pursued with the same enemy, the same plans, and the same objects as in the palmiest days of the monarchy.”
107.
Quoted in Bailey Stone , The Genesis of the French Revolution, 238–239.
108.
Ibid.
109.
Ibid., 29–30.
110.
See Robespierre , “Report on the Principles of Political Morality,” 5 February 1794, 368–384, and “Discourse by Citizen Lacroix to the Unity Section at the meeting of July 28, 1793,” 332–337, quoted in University of Chicago Readings in Western Civilization, edited by John W. Boyer and Julius Kirshner vol. 7: The Old Regime and the French Revolution, edited by Keith Michael Baker (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 370 and 336.
111.
Stone , The Genesis of the French Revolution, 242.
112.
Hervé Leuwers, “Théorie et pratique des relations internationales chez les hommes du Directoire,” La République directoriale (1998): 944.
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114.
Quoted in T. C. W. Blanning , The French Revolutionary Wars, 82.
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Victor Hugo , Les Misérables, translated by Norman Denny (New York: Penguin, 2012), 712. Hugo is quoted in Fouad Ajami , “Iran: The Impossible Revolution,” Foreign Affairs, 1 December 1988. http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/43992/fouad-ajami/iran-the-impossible-revolution.
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Fouad Ajami , “Iran: The Impossible Revolution.”
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Burke quoted in Tim Harris, ed., Popular Culture in England, c. 1500–1850 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1955), 1.
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B. L., Add. 59025, fol. 222, John Trevor to Grenville , November 1792.
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123.
Burke, Speeches, 3: 456, 9 February 1790.
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Arthur M. Eckstein,” Review: Brigands, Emperors and Anarchy,” The International History Review, 22, no. 4 (December 2000): 870.
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Department of History, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
Linda Frey
Department of History, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Marsha Frey

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Frey, L., Frey, M. (2018). Conclusion: Return to the Old. In: The Culture of French Revolutionary Diplomacy. Studies in Diplomacy and International Relations. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71709-8_8

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