Abstract
This chapter provides an introduction to the discursive bond between philosophy and Shiʿism. It discusses the relation between narratives of Islamic epistemology/psychology and those of Shīʿī authority in their complex religious and political applications. The author argues that the possibility of historical confluence aside, the two fields share narratives, arguments, statements, and concepts. She also highlights the synthetic methodology which is prominent in the philosophical texts produced in a Shīʿī context. The chapter also explains the rationale for comparing Ḥamīd al-Dīn Kirmānī and Mullā Ṣadrā. The author argues that though separated by time, location, and ideology, Kirmānī and Mullā Ṣadrā belong to the same tradition of synthesizing Greek discourses on knowledge with Shīʿī discourses on the imamate. This chapter ends with notes on the author’s method of analysis and style.
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Notes
- 1.
In Islamic philosophical literature the First Master is Aristotle, the Second is Fārābī, and the Third is Muḥammad Bāqir Mīr Dāmād , the Safavid philosopher and Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophy teacher. See Muhsin Mahdi, Alfarabi: Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1962), 4.
- 2.
For the political philosophies of classical Islamic philosophers including Fārābī, see Charles E. Butterworth, ed., The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy: Essays in Honor of Muhsin S. Mahdi (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
- 3.
Throughout this book, I use “epistemology/psychology” because there is no clear delineation of a border between cognitive psychology and epistemology in the works of Kirmānī and Mullā Ṣadrā. Moreover, I am not engaging in epistemology in the technical sense of analyzing the conditions of knowledge and justification. I use the adjective “epistemic” in a broad sense as descriptive of narratives of knowledge formation.
- 4.
On these issues, see Hans Daiber , “The Ismaili Background of Fārābī’s Political Philosophy: Abū Ḥātim ar-Rāzī as a forerunner of Fārābī,” in Gottes ist der Orient, Gottes ist der Okzident: Festschrift für Abdoldjavad Falaturi zum 65 Geburtstag, ed. Hrsg. U. Tworuschka (Cologne: Böhlau, 1991). Fuzzi M. Najjar, “Fārābī’s Political Philosophy and Shiʿism,” Studia Islamica 14 (1961): 57–72.
- 5.
ʿAbd al-Wāḥid Jūzjānī, The Life of Ibn Sina: A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation by William E. Gohlman (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1971), 19. Robert Wisnovsky, “Avicenna,” in The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy, eds. Peter Adamson and Richard C. Taylor (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 95.
- 6.
Ḥamīd al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd Allāh Kirmānī, Rāḥat al-ʿaql, ed. Muḥammad Muṣṭafā Ḥilmī (Cairo: Dār al-fikr al-ʿArabiyya, 1953), 22.
- 7.
Daniel C. Peterson, “The Repose of the Intellect,” in The Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, vol. 2, eds. Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Mahdi Aminrazavi, 175–192 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
- 8.
Kirmānī, Rāḥat al-ʿaql, 22.
- 9.
Daniel De-Smet, La quiétude de l’intellect: Néoplatonisme et gnose Ismaélienne dans l’œuvre de Ḥamîd al-Dîn al-Kirmânî (Xe/XIe S.) (Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies, 1995), 19.
- 10.
Ḥamīd al-Dīn Kirmānī, Kitāb al-Riyāḍ, ed. Aref Tamer (Beirut: al-Maṭbaʿat at-tijāriyya, 1960).
- 11.
Ḥamīd al-Dīn Kirmānī, al-Aqwāl al-dhahabiyya, ed. Ṣalāḥ al-Ṣāwī (Tehran: Anjuman-i shahanshāhī-i falsafa-yi Īrān, 1977).
- 12.
Ḥamīd al-Dīn Kirmānī, Al-Maṣābīḥ fī ithbāt al-imāma, ed. and trans. Paul. E. Walker: Master of the Age: An Islamic Treatise on the Necessity of the Imamate: A Critical Edition of the Arabic Text and English Translation of Ḥamīd al-Dīn Aḥmad B. ʿAbd Allāh Kirmānī’s al-Maṣābīḥ fī ithbāt al-imāma (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2007).
- 13.
Kirmānī, Al-Maṣābīḥ fī ithbāt al-imāma, 40; 43; 53.
- 14.
Faquir Muhammad Hunzai, “The Concept of Tawḥid in the Thought of Ḥamid al-Dīn al-Kirmānī (d. after 411/1021),” PhD diss., McGill University (Canada), 1986. http://search.proquest.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/pqdtglobal/docview/250905354/citation/A03EC29FA4C5464FPQ/2?accountid=14771
- 15.
Paul E. Walker, Early Philosophical Shiism: the Ismaili Neoplatonism of Abū Yaʿqūb Sijistānī (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
- 16.
Paul E. Walker, Ḥamīd al-Dīn al-Kirmānī: Ismaili Thought in the Age of al-Ḥākim (London/New York: I.B. Tauris, 1999).
- 17.
Daniel De Smet, La quiétude de l’intellect: Néoplatonisme et gnose Ismaélienne dans l’œuvre de Ḥamîd al-Dîn al-Kirmânî (Xe/XIe S.) (Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies, 1995).
- 18.
Mullā Ṣadrā Shīrāzī, al-Ḥikmat al-mutaʿāliya fi asfār al-ʿaqliyya al-arbaʿa, ed. Muḥammad Riḍa Muẓaffar, 9 vols. (Beirut: Dār al-iḥyaʾ al-turāth al-ʿArabī, 1999).
- 19.
In his preface to the first volume, Mullā Ṣadrā explains that the gnostics (al-ʿurafā) and the friends of God (al-awlīyāʾ) go on four spiritual journeys (asfāran arbaʿatan): the journey from the created world to God (al-safar min al-khalq ila’l-Ḥaqq); the journey with God in God (al-safar bi’l-Ḥaqq fi’l-Ḥaqq); the journey from God to the created world (al-safar min al-Ḥaqq ila’l-khalq); and finally the journey with God in the created world (al-safar bi’l-Ḥaqq fi’l-khalq). Shīrāzī, al-Ḥikmat al-mutaʿāliya fi asfār al-ʿaqliyya al-arbaʿa, 1:13.
- 20.
Mullā Ṣadrā Shīrāzī, al-Shawāhid al-rubūbiyya, ed. Sayyid Jalāl al-Dīn Ᾱshtiyānī (Mashhad: Dānishgāh-i Mashhad, 1968).
- 21.
Mullā Ṣadrā Shīrāzī, sharḥ uṣūl al-kāfī, eds. Muḥammad Khājawī and ʿAlī Nūrī, 2nd ed. 4 vols. Tehran: Pizhūhishgāh-i ʿUlūm-i Insānī wa Muṭālaʿāt-i Farhangī, 1383 S.H./2004.
- 22.
For a complete annotated bibliography of Mullā Ṣadrā, see Ibrahim Kalin, “An Annotated Bibliography of the Works of Mullā Ṣadrā with a Brief Account of His Life,” Islamic Studies 42:1 (2003): 21–62.
- 23.
Henry Corbin, Introduction to Le livre des pénétrations métaphysiques = Kitāb al-Mashāʿir, by Ṣadr al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Shīrāzī, trans. Henry Corbin (Paris: Verdier, 1988), 9–78.
- 24.
Henry Corbin, En Islam iranien, aspects spirituels et philosophiques, 4 vols. (Paris: Gallimard, 1971), 4:54–122.
- 25.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Sadr al-Din Shirazi and his Transcendent Theosophy: Background, Life and Works (Tehran: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, 1997), 57.
- 26.
Christian Jambet, L’actre d’être: La philosophie de la révélation chez Mollâ Sadrâ (Paris: Fayard, 2002). Jambet tries to prove that Mullā Ṣadrā replaces the dialectical framework of rational theology with the theophanic model of Ibn ʿArabī and to do this, Mullā Ṣadrā builds his theology on the divine attribute of knowledge. For the brief evaluation of literature in this section, I used my Mulla Sadra (Oxford, UK: Oneworld, 2013).
- 27.
Rahman diverges from the mystical approach by emphasizing the rational aspects of Mullā Ṣadrā’s thought. See his The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra (Albany: State University of New York. 1975).
- 28.
For a classification of approaches to Mullā Ṣadrā, see Sajjad H. Rizvi, Mullā Ṣadrā and Metaphysics: Modulation of being (London/New York: Routledge, 2009), 4–14.
- 29.
Seyyed Khalil Toussi, The Political Philosophy of Mulla Sadra (London, UK: Routledge, forthcoming).
- 30.
Jaʿfar ibn Aḥmad ibn al-Haytham, Kitāb al-munāẓarāt, eds. and trans. Wilferd Madelung and Paul Ernest Walker: The Advent of the Fatimids, a Contemporary Shiʿi Witness: An Edition and English Translation of Ibn al-Haytham’s Kitāb al-munāẓarāt (London: I.B. Tauris, 2000).
- 31.
Paul E. Walker, Introduction to The Wellsprings of Wisdom: Kitāb al-Yanābīʿ by Abū Yaʿqūb al-Sijistānī, trans. Paul E. Walker, 1–36 (Utah: University of Utah Press, 1994), 25.
- 32.
Aḥmad ibn Ibrāhīm Naysābūrī , Ithbāt al-imāma, ed. and trans. Arzina R. Lalani: Degrees of Excellence (London: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 34.
- 33.
Aḥmad ibn Yaʿqūb Abū al-Fawāris, al-Risāla fī’l-imāma, trans. Sāmī Nasīb Makārim: The Political Doctrine of the Ismāʿīlīs (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1977).
- 34.
Wilferd Madelung, “A Treatise on the Imamate of the Fatimid Caliph al-Manṣūr bi-Allāh,” in Texts, Documents and Artefacts: Islamic Studies in Honour of D.S. Richards, ed. F. Robinson, 69–77 (Leiden: Brill, 2003).
- 35.
Nizārī Ismaʿilism originated in the political strife over the successor of the Fatimid imam al-Mustanṣir bi’llāh (d. 489/1096). It is named after Abū Manṣūr al-Nizār, the eldest son of al-Mustanṣir bi’llāh , whose caliphate started and ended in Cairo; it was later followed by several Ismaʿili groups outside of Egypt. The religious and political heart of Nizārī Ismaʿilism was the fortress of Alamūt in Iran. For a history of Nizārīs in Alamūt, see Farhad Daftary, The Ismāʿīlīs: Their History and Doctrines (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 310–463.
- 36.
Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī, Sayr wa sulūk, ed. and trans. S. J. Badakhchani: Contemplation and Action: The Spiritual Autobiography of a Muslim Scholar (London: I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 1998).
- 37.
Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī, Rawḍa-yi taslīm, ed. and trans. S. J. Badakhchani : Paradise of Submission: A Medieval Treatise on Ismaili Thought (London: I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2005). There are doubts over the authorship of this treatise. According to Badakhshani, the editor of the text, the treatise could be the result of an intellectual collaboration between Ṭūsī and Ḥasan-i Maḥmūd , his advisor. See Ṭūsī, Paradise of Submission, xvi.
- 38.
Carmela Baffioni, “History, Language and Ideology in the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā’s View of the Imamate,” in Authority, Privacy and Public Order in Islam: Proceedings of the 22nd Congress of L’Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants, eds. B. Michalak-Pikulska and A. Pikulski, 17–28 (Cracow, Poland: Peeters, 2006).
- 39.
Farhad Daftary, The Ismāʿīlīs: Their History and Doctrines (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992). The attribution of Ismaʿilism to the Brethren has faced opposition among scholars. For example, Ian R. Netton, whose speciality is the Brethren , believes the imam is not a central teaching in Rasāʾl and that the Brethren use the term “imam” only in the sense of a leader of Muslims, that is, caliph. See Ian R. Netton, “Brotherhood versus Imāmate: Ikhwān al-Ṣafā and the Ismāʿīlīs,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 2 (1980): 253–262.
- 40.
Paul E. Walker, “In Praise of al-Ḥākim: Greek Elements in Ismaili Writings on the Imamate,” Mélanges de l’Université Saint-Joseph 57 (2004): 367–392; Faṭimid History and Ismaili Doctrine (Burlington: Ashgate/Variorum, 2008); Ḥamīd al-Dīn al-Kirmānī: Ismaili Thought in the Age of al-Ḥākim (London/New York: I.B. Tauris, 1999).
- 41.
Shafique Virani, The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, a Search for Salvation (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007).
- 42.
Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge, trans. Sheridan Smith (London: Tavistock Publications, 1972), 80.
- 43.
Joseph Rouse, “Power/Knowledge,” in The Cambridge Companion to Foucault (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 111.
- 44.
Todd May, Between Genealogy and Epistemology: Psychology, Politics, and Knowledge in the Thought of Michel Foucault (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1993), 72.
- 45.
The distinction between discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis is a controversial one, as it is believed that any analysis in the Foucauldian sense has a critical orientation. On this issue, see Sara Mills, Discourse (New York: Routledge, 2004); Dominique Maingueneau, “Is Discourse Analysis Critical? And This Risky Order of Discourse,” Critical Discourse Studies 3/2 (October 2006): 229–235. The distinction has a significant methodological place in my study since it emphasizes the role of speculative discourses in generating and establishing the dominant narratives of Shīʿī authority and its crystallization in certain historical periods.
- 46.
Norman Fairclough, Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language (Edinburgh, UK: Pearson Education Limited, 1995; rpt. 2010), 27.
- 47.
Michel Foucault, “Truth and Power,” in The Foucault Reader, ed. Paul Rabinow (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984), 64.
- 48.
Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge, 12.
- 49.
Ibid.
- 50.
Abdel Haleem, M.A.S., trans. The Qurʾan (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, rpt. 2016).
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Meisami, S. (2018). Introduction. In: Knowledge and Power in the Philosophies of Ḥamīd al-Dīn Kirmānī and Mullā Ṣadrā Shīrāzī. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71192-8_1
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