Abstract
Brown analyzes a pair of Japanese surrealist horror films—Teshigahara Hiroshi’s Face of Another (Tanin no kao, 1966) and Miike Takashi’s Gozu (Gokudō kyōfu daigekijō: Gozu, 2003)—in relation to the transnational and intermedial flows of international surrealist artistic production. Rather than restricting the definition of surrealist cinema to the films made by members of the original Parisian Surrealist Group, Brown considers what connects directors of Japanese horror to earlier surrealist filmmakers along with the experimental filmmaking techniques and tropes that have been incorporated into J-horror films in often underappreciated ways.
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Notes
- 1.
Salvador Dalí quoted in Hans Richter, Dada, Art and Anti-Art, translated by David Britt (New York, N.Y.: Thames and Hudson, 1997), 194.
- 2.
Félix Guattari, Chaosophy: Texts and Interviews 1972–1977, edited by Sylvère Lotringer (Los Angeles, CA: Semiotexte, 2009), 247. The concept of “cinema fou” (mad cinema), which serves as the main title of this chapter, is borrowed from an interview with Guattari on the role of amour fou in Terence Malick’s Badlands (1973), which was first published in Libération (July 17, 1975) and later reprinted in Félix Guattari, La Révolution moléculaire (Fontenay-sous-Bois: Recherches, 1977).
- 3.
For further discussion of Un chien andalou , including its influence on Japanese horror films such as Tetsuo: The Iron Man (Tetsuo; dir. Tsukamoto Shin’ya, 1989), see my Tokyo Cyberpunk: Posthumanism in Japanese Visual Culture (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 60–64.
- 4.
On conceptions of surrealist cinema and its exemplars both narrowly and broadly defined, see Alison Frank’s discussion in Reframing Reality: The Aesthetics of the Surrealist Object in French and Czech Cinema (Bristol: Intellect, 2013), 1–10.
- 5.
- 6.
Luis Buñuel, My Last Breath (London: Flamingo, 1985), 107.
- 7.
Quoted in Keith Aspley, Historical Dictionary of Surrealism (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2010), 267. See also André Breton, “The Exquisite Corpse, Its Exaltation (1948),” in André Breton, Surrealism and Painting, translated by Simon Watson Taylor (Boston: MFA Publications, 2002), 288–90. See also Elza Adamowicz, Surrealist Collage in Text and Image: Dissecting the Exquisite Corpse (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 78–83, 160–62, 175–78.
- 8.
Breton, “The Exquisite Corpse,” 290.
- 9.
Luis Buñuel, My Last Sigh, translated by Abigail Israel (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), 103–04.
- 10.
Morise quoted in Aspley, 8. From Morise’s essay “Les yeux enchantés” (The Enchanted Eyes), which was included in the opening issue of the surrealist journal La Révolution surréaliste published in December 1924.
- 11.
Michael Richardson, Surrealism and Cinema (Oxford; New York: Berg, 2006), 29.
- 12.
Takemitsu’s score for Face of Another received an award for Best Film Score at the 1967 Mainichi Film Concours.
- 13.
Peter Grilli, “The Spectral Landscape of Teshigahara, Abe, and Takemitsu,” The Criterion Collection, July 9, 2007, https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/607-the-spectral-landscape-of-teshigahara-abe-and-takemitsu (accessed November 19, 2016).
- 14.
See Felicity Glee’s comparative analysis of surrealist practice in Teshigahara’s Otoshiana (Pitfall, 1962) and Buñuel’s Los Olvidados (The Forgotten Ones, 1950): Felicity Glee, “Surrealist Legacies: The Influence of Luis Buñuel’s ‘Irrationality’ on Hiroshi Teshigahara’s ‘Documentary-Fantasy,’” in A Companion to Luis Buñuel, edited by Rob Stone and Julián Daniel Gutiérrez-Albilla (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013), 572–89.
- 15.
John Woo would explore similar ideas in his 1997 action thriller Face/Off, but Face of Another offers a much more philosophically charged, surrealist engagement with such issues.
- 16.
Examples include Extreme Makeover (2002–2007), Dr. 90210 (2004–2008), Miami Slice (2004), and I Want a Famous Face (2004–2005).
- 17.
Ghislaine Wood, The Surreal Body: Fetish and Fashion (London: V & A Publications, 2007), 6.
- 18.
On the fragmented body in surrealist art and photography, see Wood, 6–17, 32–55; Sidra Stich, Anxious Visions: Surrealist Art (Berkeley: University Art Museum, 1990), 26–37, 42–47, 51–54, 74–79; Madeleine Cottenet-Hage, “The Body Subversive: Corporeal Imagery in Carrington, Prassinos and Mansour,” in Surrealism and Women, edited by Mary Ann Caws, Rudolf E. Kuenzli, and Gloria Gwen Raaberg (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991), 76–95; Hal Foster, “Violation and Veiling in Surrealist Photography: Woman as Fetish, as Shattered Object, as Phallus,” in Surrealism: Desire Unbound, edited by Jennifer Mundy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001), 203–26. On the fragmented body in surrealist cinema, see Richard Abel, French Cinema: The First Wave, 1915–1929 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 483–85; Robert Short, “Un Chien Andalou,” in The Age of Gold: Surrealist Cinema, edited by Robert Short (London: Creation Books, 2003), 72; Phillip Drummond, “Textual Space in Un Chien Andalou ,” Screen vol. 18, no. 3 (1977): 55–119; Paul Sandro, “The Space of Desire in An Andalusian Dog,” 1978 Film Studies Annual (1979): 57–63.
- 19.
Linda Nochlin, The Body in Pieces: The Fragment as a Metaphor of Modernity (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995).
- 20.
Adamowicz (178) summarizing the argument put forward by Xavière Gauthier in her study Surréalisme et sexualité (Paris: Gallimard, 1971).
- 21.
Adamowicz, 181.
- 22.
Wood, 56.
- 23.
James Quandt, “Video Essay,” Tanin no kao, directed by Teshigahara Hiroshi (1966), translated as Face of Another, subtitled DVD (Irvington, N.Y.: The Criterion Collection, 2007).
- 24.
Such imagery resonates with the surrealist fascination with insect imagery. Here I am thinking not only of Buñuel and Dalí’s visualization of ants crawling out of a hole in a man’s hand in Un chien andalou (Dalí practically established swarming ants as a leitmotif for mortality, decomposition, and irrepressible sexual desire) but also the early surrealists’ usage of the praying mantis as a figuration for the voracious sexuality of the femme fatale. In Woman in the Dunes (Suna no onna, 1964), which was released two years before Face of Another, Teshigahara and his collaborators Abe and Takemitsu pursued the surrealist implications of such entomological tropes as far as they would take them. The protagonist of Woman in the Dunes is an amateur entomologist named Niki Junpei who in the course of collecting rare bugs comes face-to-face with what it feels like to be treated like a bug himself by the unnamed “sand-woman” (suna no onna) played by Kishida Kyōko, who also plays the nurse at the clinic treating Okuyama in Face of Another.
- 25.
Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari , A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, translated by Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 167–91.
- 26.
Ibid., 168, 170.
- 27.
Ibid., 168.
- 28.
On Eyes Without a Face , see Raymond Durgnat, Franju (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), 78–86; Kate Ince, Georges Franju (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005), 50–53, 67–75, 139–42. In Ring 0: Birthday ( Ringu 0: Bāsudei, 2000)—a prequel to the Ringu series—Tsuruta Norio pays homage to Eyes Without a Face by having the young Sadako (before she turns into the vengeful ghost of Ringu ) play the lead role in a play titled Kamen (Mask ) that is supposed to be a stage adaptation of George Franju’s unsettling classic.
- 29.
On the genre of “cínema fantastique,” see Ince, 47–61. As Richard Scheib points out in his review, “The Face of Another joins a number of other films from the late 1950s onwards that deal with surgeons engaged in facial experiments. This mini-genre began with the French arthouse hit Eyes Without a Face (1960) and quickly made its way to the province of B horror movies with the likes of Atom Age Vampire (1960), Circus of Horrors (1960), The Awful Dr. Orloff (1962) and Corruption (1968).” See Richard Scheib, “Review of The Face of Another,” Moria: Science Fiction, Horror and Fantasy Film Review, http://moria.co.nz/sciencefiction/face-of-another-1966-tanin-no-kao.htm (accessed December 3, 2016).
- 30.
Salvador Dalí quoted in Hans Richter, Dada, Art and Anti-Art, 194.
- 31.
Georges Bataille, “Eye,” in Visions of Excess: Selected Writings, 1927–1939, edited by Allan Stoekl (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985), 17.
- 32.
Miki’s ear art may also have been inspired by Méret Oppenheim’s bronze sculpture Giacometti’s Ear (1933).
- 33.
Alexandra Munroe, Japanese Art After 1945: Scream Against the Sky (New York : H. N. Abrams, 1994), 195.
- 34.
Munroe, 198. See also Doryun Chong, “Tokyo 1955–1970: A New Avant-Garde,” in Tokyo 1955–1970: A New Avant-Garde, edited by Doryun Chong (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2012), 58.
- 35.
Munroe, 198.
- 36.
Keiko I. McDonald, “Stylistic Experiment: Teshigahara’s The Face of Another,” in From Book to Screen: Modern Japanese Literature in Films (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2000), 278.
- 37.
Michel Chion, Audio-Vision: Sound on Screen, translated by Claudia Gorbman (New York: Columbia UP, 1994), 57.
- 38.
Later, when Okuyama meets Dr. Hori at a nightclub to discuss his experiences with the mask , the same waltz is played again but this time it is performed diegetically by a live band with a Japanese singer who sings German lyrics that resonate strongly with the discussion at hand: “I see your face before me,/Yet I no longer recognize you./Where are you? Where are you? The you I knew yesterday./I saw you in the fog/As if through frosted glass./You were so near and yet so far away./You glistened in the moonlight/As if your skin were made of glass./You were good to me and yet you were a stranger.”
- 39.
Rear projection is used to create a number of extraordinarily surreal scenes. In one scene, a door in the middle of the doctor’s office (that seems to lead to nowhere) opens by itself to reveal an extreme close-up of a woman’s long hair floating on the shoreline like seaweed—perhaps an intimation of the suicide that takes place later in the film involving a parallel narrative about an atomic bomb survivor from Nagasaki with disfiguring facial scars. In another example, a woman (probably the doctor’s wife) flies around the city on a bed, dodging buildings. In each case, the surreal interrupts the everyday without forewarning, making us question what it is that we are seeing.
- 40.
The doubling of shots, settings, and snippets of dialogue, in which Okuyama is reinserted into nearly identical scenes, creates a strong sense of cinematic déjà vu that is strongly reminiscent of Buñuel’s use of repetition in The Exterminating Angel (El ángel exterminador, 1962).
- 41.
Also known as X-ray of My Skull. See https://www.sfmoma.org/artwork/96.188 (accessed July 31, 2017).
- 42.
On Oppenheim , see Wood, 42–47; Renée Riese Hubert, “From Déjeuner en fourrure to Caroline: Meret Oppenheim’s Chronicle of Surrealism,” in Surrealism and Women, 37–49; and Robert J. Belton, “Androgyny: Interview with Meret Oppenheim,” in Surrealism and Women, 63–75.
- 43.
For a discussion of how the genre of the portrait is parodied in the art of other surrealists, see Adamowicz, 141–55. The fact that Oppenheim’s X-ray self-portrait displays rings on her hand and earrings dangling from her ears probably also references the intersection of X-rays and fashion that accompanied the early introduction of X-ray technology. According to Stanley Reiser, “New York women of fashion had X-rays taken of their hands covered with jewelry, to illustrate that ‘beauty is of the bone and not altogether of the flesh.’ ‘Women Not Afraid,’ read one headline, as single women clasped hands with their beaux for sentimental X-ray photographs, and married women gave bony portraits of their hands to relatives as family souvenirs.” See Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 61. See also Lisa Cartwright, Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine’s Visual Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 115.
- 44.
Chion , 128.
- 45.
Akira Mizuta Lippit , Atomic Light (Shadow Optics) (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 87.
- 46.
Ibid., 29–30.
- 47.
Catherine Waldby, The Visible Human Project: Informatic Bodies and Post-Human Medicine (London: Routledge, 2000), 91.
- 48.
Translation mine.
- 49.
Teshigahara remarked in interviews that the doctor was another part of Okuyama.
- 50.
Steven T. Brown, Theatricalities of Power: The Cultural Politics of Noh (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001), 27–28. See also Komparu Kunio, The Noh Theater: Principles and Perspectives, translated by Jane Corddry (NewYork: Walker/Weatherhill, 1983), 227–28; Nakamura Yasuo, Noh: The Classical Theatre, translated by Don Kenny (NewYork: Walker/Weatherhill, 1971), 214.
- 51.
Komparu, 126.
- 52.
WWWJDIC Japanese Dictionary Server, s.v. “bakeru,” http://nihongo.monash.edu/cgi-bin/wwwjdic?1F (accessed on December 3, 2016).
- 53.
Director Alan Parker would later pay homage to this scene in the movie Pink Floyd: The Wall (1982).
- 54.
Quandt, “Video Essay.”
- 55.
Yoshio Sugimoto, An Introduction to Japanese Society, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 33.
- 56.
Jane M. Bachnik , “Time, Space and Person in Japanese relationships,” in Interpreting Japanese Society: Anthropological Approaches, edited by Joy Hendry (London; New York: Routledge, 1998), 107–08.
- 57.
Takeo Doi, The Anatomy of Self: The Individual Versus Society (Tokyo; New York: Kodansha International, 1986), 25.
- 58.
Doi , 26.
- 59.
As Doi points out, the concepts of omote and ura are strongly correlated with the concepts of soto (outside) and uchi (inside). See Doi , 29; Bachnik , 108.
- 60.
Doi , 33.
- 61.
James Quandt, “The Face of Another: Double Vision,” The Criterion Collection. https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/592-the-face-of-another-double-vision (accessed November 15, 2016).
- 62.
Kōbō Abe, The Face of Another, translated by E. Dale Saunders (New York: Vintage, 2003), 62. For a more detailed comparison of the Face of Another novel and film adaptation, see McDonald , 269–86; Tomoda Yoshiyuki, Sengo zen’ei eiga to bungaku: Abe Kōbō x Teshigahara Hiroshi (Kyoto: Jinbun Shoin, 2012), 215–243.
- 63.
On the significance of the young woman’s keloidal scars and the function of this film -within-a-film, see Tomoda, 215–228.
- 64.
Abe , 231.
- 65.
Abe , 230.
- 66.
McDonald , 283.
- 67.
See André Breton, “Second Manifesto of Surrealism” (1930), in Manifestoes of Surrealism, translated by Richard Seaver and Helen R. Lane (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1969), 180–81. In The Phantom of Liberty (Le Fantôme de la liberté, 1974), Buñuel uses incestuous relations between both aunt and nephew and brother and sister to illustrate the transgressive nature of amour fou. On amour fou in the films of Buñuel, see Peter William Evans, “An Amour still fou: Late Buñuel,” in The Unsilvered Screen: Surrealism on Film, edited by Graeme Harper and Rob Stone (London: Wallflower, 2007b), 38–47.
- 68.
David Sylvester, The Brutality of Fact: Interviews with Francis Bacon (London: Thames & Hudson, 1987), 46–47.
- 69.
Gilles Deleuze, Francis Bacon: The Logic of Sensation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), 21.
- 70.
McDonald , 284. However, I do not agree with McDonald’s interpretation that “the young man’s body is seen (in my view) as a vulture chained to the window”(284). The animal carcass hanging from hooks appears more bovine than avian in my opinion. See also discussion in Tomoda (236–241), who compares the scene to Luis Buñuel’s surrealist comedy L’âge d’or (1930), in which a young woman discovers a cow in her bed.
- 71.
Chris D., Outlaw Masters of Japanese Film (London; New York: I.B. Tauris, 2005), 198–99.
- 72.
Miike Takashi , “Interview by Film Critic Wade Major,” Gozu, directed by Miike Takashi (2003), subtitled DVD (United States: Cinema Epoch, 2009).
- 73.
Tom Mes, “Review of Gozu,” Midnight Eye, May 21, 2003b, http://www.midnighteye.com/reviews/gozu/ (accessed December 14, 2015).
- 74.
In his crazed endeavor to take out the yakuza attack dog, Ozaki appears to have been inspired by a strange video (probably a parody of the Ringu video) that appears at the very outset of the film displayed on a television monitor in the restaurant. Ozaki is as mesmerized by the horribly distorted sound-image relations of the short video as he is by the dictum expressed in it, one of the most famous mottos attributed to influential Meiji-period educator William Smith Clark (1826–1886): “Boys, be ambitious [Shōnen yo taishi o idake]!” In the context of Gozu’s nontraditional, transgendered yakuza love story, “Boys, be ambitious!” effectively becomes “Boys, be ambiguous!”
- 75.
This meta-level playfulness is reaffirmed again in a later scene when it is revealed to both Minami and the audience that the character of an American woman, who speaks Japanese very poorly, is actually reading aloud cue cards that are hanging just outside the frame, thereby demystifying the illusion of the cinematic construct even further.
- 76.
Tom Mes, Re-Agitator: A Decade of Writing on Takashi Miike (Surrey, England: FAB Press, 2013), 46.
- 77.
Jorge Bastos da Silva, “A Lusitanian Dish: Swift to Portuguese Taste,” in The Reception of Jonathan Swift in Europe, edited by Hermann Josef Real (London, England: Thoemmes, 2005), 90.
- 78.
André Breton, Anthology of Black Humor, translated by Mark Polizzotti (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1997), xix.
- 79.
Kurt Vonnegut, Conversations with Kurt Vonnegut, edited by William Rodney Allen (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1988), 56.
- 80.
Julia Kristeva, Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection, translated by Leon S. Roudiez (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982).
- 81.
Brigid Cherry, Horror (London; New York: Routledge, 2009), 112.
- 82.
Tom Mes has suggested that the incestuous sister and brother, Masa and Kazu, invoke Japanese creation mythology, offering “a degenerate version of Izanagi and Izanami, the brother and sister deities who descended from the heavens to Earth’s primordial ooze and gave birth to the Japanese archipelago and its first emperor (after initially spawning a boneless miscreant named Hiruko, that is).” Mes , Re-Agitator, 50.
- 83.
Mes , Re-Agitator, 50.
- 84.
See Jillian Suarez, “Minotaure: Surrealist Magazine from the 1930s,” Guggenheim.org, September 25, 2014, http://blogs.guggenheim.org/findings/minotaure-surrealist-magazine-1930s/ (accessed December 23, 2016).
- 85.
Adamowicz, 97.
- 86.
Tony Rayns, “Review of Gozu,” Sight & Sound, vol. 14, no. 9 (September 2004): 64.
- 87.
Rayns , 64.
- 88.
André Breton quoted in Penelope Rosemont, “Introduction: All My Names Know Your Leap: Surrealist Women and Their Challenge,” in Surrealist Women: An International Anthology, edited by Penelope Rosemont (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998), xliv.
- 89.
Rosemont, xliv–xlv.
- 90.
Brian Sewell interviewed in Dirty Dalí: A Private View, directed by Guy Evans (2007), DVD (London: Channel 4, 2007a).
- 91.
Hans Bellmer, The Doll, translated by Malcolm Green (London: Atlas Press, 2005), 125.
- 92.
Michael Semff and Anthony Spira, “Introduction ,” Hans Bellmer, edited by Michael Semff and Anthony Spira (Ostfildern, Germany: Hatje Cantz Publishers, 2006), 10.
- 93.
David William Foster, Queer Issues in Contemporary Latin American Cinema (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2004), xiv–xv.
- 94.
Mes , Re-Agitator, 50.
- 95.
Tony Williams, “Takashi Miike’s Cinema of Outrage,” Cineaction, no. 64 (2004): 62.
- 96.
Jean -Luc Nancy, Listening, translated by Charlotte Mandell (New York: Fordham University Press, 2007), 7.
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Brown, S.T. (2018). Cinema Fou: Surrealist Horror from Face of Another to Gozu . In: Japanese Horror and the Transnational Cinema of Sensations. East Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70629-0_4
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