Abstract
Taking into consideration cultural expressions of the double that have appeared in literature, art, folklore, and film from around the world, Brown focuses on the role of Japanese horror as a productive cultural medium for doubles—a topic that has received relatively little attention thus far in J-horror scholarship. Analyzed both in terms of its evocations of the uncanny and with respect to the ghostly effects of the cinematic apparatus itself (with particular reference to the complex framing techniques employed to help visualize the unstable dynamics between self and double), Brown investigates the figure of the doppelgänger primarily in relation to the J-horror films Bilocation (Bairokēshon; dir. Asato Mari, 2013), Doppelgänger (Dopperugengā; dir. Kurosawa Kiyoshi, 2003), and Box (dir. Miike Takashi, 2004).
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Notes
- 1.
Nicholas Royle, The Uncanny (New York: Routledge, 2003), 76.
- 2.
I discuss the role played by ikiryō in classical Japanese literature and medieval drama in my study Theatricalities of Power: The Cultural Politics of Noh (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001), 37–87.
- 3.
The illness was also known as “shadow sickness” (kage no yamai). See Konno Ensuke, Nihon kaidanshū: Yūrei hen (Tokyo: Chūō Kōron Shinsha, 2004), 64–66.
- 4.
Michael Dylan Foster, The Book of Yōkai: Mysterious Creatures of Japanese Folklore (Oakland, California: University of California Press, 2015), 208.
- 5.
The full title of Jean Paul’s novel is Blumen-, Frucht- und Dornenstücke oder Ehestand, Tod und Hochzeit des Armenadvokaten F. St. Siebenkäs im Reichsmarktflecken Kuhschnappel (Flower, Fruit, and Thorn Pieces; or, the Married Life, Death, and Wedding of Siebenkäs, Poor Man’s Lawyer).
- 6.
Jean Paul, Sämtliche Werke, vol. 1, edited by Norbert Miller (Munich: Hanser Verlag, 1960), 67 (translation mine).
- 7.
“DOPPELGÄNGER, auch wol doppeltgänger, m. jemand von dem man wähnt er könne sich zu gleicher zeit an zwei verschiedenen orten zeigen.” Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm, “DOPPELGÄNGER,” Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm, vol. 2 (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1860), 1263 (translation mine).
- 8.
Thea Brejzek and Lawrence Wallen, “Derealisation, Perception and Site: Some Notes on the Doppelgänger Space,” in Perception in Architecture: Here and Now, edited by Claudia Perren and Miriam Mlecek (Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2015), 2.
- 9.
Sigmund Freud, The Uncanny, translated by David McLintock (New York: Penguin Books, 2003), 142.
- 10.
Ibid., 142. On psychoanalytic theories of the double, see also Steven Jay Schneider, “Manifestations of the Literary Double in Modern Horror Cinema,” in Horror Film and Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Worst Nightmare, edited by Steven Jay Schneider (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004a), 107–110.
- 11.
Euripides, Helen, translated by James Michie and Colin Leach (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 21–22 (lines 22–39).
- 12.
- 13.
“Etiäinen,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiäinen (accessed October 7, 2016).
- 14.
Friedrich Kittler, “Romanticism—Psychoanalysis—Film: A History of the Double,” in Literature, Media, Information Systems, edited by John Johnston (New York: Routledge, 1997), 96.
- 15.
Nicholas Royle , The Uncanny (New York: Routledge, 2003), 76.
- 16.
Although directed by Basil Dearden not Alfred Hitchcock, The Man Who Haunted Himself is based on the novel The Strange Case of Mr. Pelham (1957) by Anthony Armstrong, which was first adapted as an episode for the television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents in 1955. Hitchcock was not involved with the film adaptation, but the movie has an undeniably Hitchcockian flair.
- 17.
Alissa Wilkinson quoted in Emma Jones, “Why are There So Many Doppelgangers in Films Right Now?” BBC Culture, April 10, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20140410-why-so-many-doppelgangers (accessed January 19, 2015). See also Alissa Wilkinson, “What’s With All the Movies About Doppelgängers?” The Atlantic, March 14, 2014, http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/03/whats-with-all-the-movies-about-doppelg-ngers/284413/ (accessed January 19, 2015).
- 18.
H. D. M. Spence-Jones, ed., The Pulpit Commentary (New York, Toronto: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 189-?), 77.
- 19.
Shinobu’s name is spelled with the kanji 忍 (meaning “conceal oneself,” “hide,” or “endure”). In addition, it is also homophonic with the verb “shinobu” (偲ぶ), which may be translated as “recollect,” “remember,” “reminisce,” “be nostalgic for.” During the course of the film, all of these senses come into play in one way or another in Shinobu’s character development.
- 20.
David Sylvester, Magritte (Brussels: Mercatorfonds, 2009), 88.
- 21.
Jacques Meuris, René Magritte : 1898–1967 (Los Angeles: Taschen, 2007), 41. For further examples of Magritte’s exploration of the ambiguity between interior and exterior, image and reality, see The Key to the Fields (La clef des champs, 1936), The Call of the Peaks (L’appel des cîmes, 1943), and Where Euclid Walked (Les promenades d’Euclide, 1955).
- 22.
From an overview for La condition humaine (1933) provided by the National Gallery of Art, http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/Collection/art-object-page.70170.html (accessed December 12, 2016).
- 23.
Sylvester, 386.
- 24.
Edgar Allan Poe’s famous doppelgänger short story “William Wilson” (1839) ends with a terrifying mirror scene in which the protagonist thinks he sees the bloodied body of his doppelgänger in the mirror only to realize that he sees himself: “You have conquered, and I yield. Yet henceforward art thou also dead—dead to the world and its hopes. In me didst thou exist—and, in my death, see by this image, which is thine own, how utterly thou hast murdered thyself.” See Edgar Allan Poe, “William Wilson,” in The Complete Poems and Stories of Edgar Allan Poe, with Selections from His Critical Writings (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1982), 292.
- 25.
Donald Richie, A Hundred Years of Japanese Film (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2005), 86.
- 26.
Quoted by Lotte Eisner in The Haunted Screen (London: Secker & Warburg, 1973), 40.
- 27.
On the role played by the divided space of mirrors in The Student of Prague, see Leon Hunt, “The Student of Prague,” in Early Cinema: Space, Frame, Narrative, edited by Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker (London: BFI Publishing, 1990), 389–401.
- 28.
Otto Rank, The Double : A Psychoanalytic Study, translated by Harry Tucker Jr., (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 8–33, 49–68. See also Freud , The Uncanny, 142. The earlier version of Rank’s research on the double that was cited by Freud in his essay “Das Unheimliche” had originally been published in the journal Imago, which was devoted to the application of psychoanalytic theory to the humanities and was edited by Freud . See Otto Rank , “Der Doppelgänger,” in Imago: Zeitschrift für Anwendung der Psychoanalyse auf die Geisteswissenschaften, edited by Sigmund Freud (Leipzig, Vienna, and Zürich: Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag, 1914), Vol. III, 97–164.
- 29.
Fyodor Dostoevsky, The Double and The Gambler, translated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky (New York: Vintage, 2007), 111.
- 30.
Another exception is the sci-fi thriller Coherence (2013), directed by James Ward Byrkit, about a group of friends who are confronted with their own doppelgängers when a passing comet tears a fissure in the space-time continuum that creates an opening for a parallel universe. In the realm of painting, I am also reminded of Dante Gabriel Rossetti’s Pre-Raphaelite work How They Met Themselves (1864), which shows a couple wearing medieval dress who are startled by an encounter with their doppelgängers in a dark forest at twilight.
- 31.
Caroline Ruddell, The Besieged Ego: Doppelgangers and Split Identity Onscreen (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013), 77.
- 32.
Jacques Lacan, “Some Reflections on the Ego,” The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, vol. 34, no. 1 (1953): 14.
- 33.
Jacques Lacan, “The Mirror Stage as Formative of the I Function as Revealed in Psychoanalytic Experience,” in Écrits: The First Complete Edition in English, translated by Bruce Fink (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2006), 75.
- 34.
Norman N. Holland, “The Trouble(s) with Lacan ,” http://users.clas.ufl.edu/nholland/lacan.htm (accessed October 21, 2015).
- 35.
Lacan , “The Mirror Stage,” 76.
- 36.
Ibid., “The Mirror Stage,” 76–78, 80; Jacques Lacan, The Seminar of Jacques Lacan: Book III. The Psychoses, 1955–1956, translated by Russell Grigg (London: Routledge, 1993), 39.
- 37.
Dylan Evans, An Introductory Dictionary of Lacanian Psychoanalysis (London; New York: Routledge, 1996), 114–16.
- 38.
Ruddell , 77.
- 39.
Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari , A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, translated by Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 587.
- 40.
Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 2: The Time-Image, translated by Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), 70.
- 41.
Ibid., 70.
- 42.
Michel Foucault, This is Not a Pipe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 50.
- 43.
Ibid., 50.
- 44.
Ibid., 50.
- 45.
However, an alternate cut of the film, titled Bairokēshon ura (Bilocation Reverse Side), which was released in Japan just two weeks after the original cut’s wide release on January 18, 2014, includes an alternate (much happier) ending in which Shinobu’s bilocation (Takamura Shinobu) does not dematerialize—much to her surprise—after the original (Kirimura Shinobu) has committed suicide . The alternate version ends with a flash forward to Shinobu’s pregnant bilocation , who apparently lives happily ever after with Masaru. In voiceover, Kagami reflects that he believes in a world in which humans and bilocations coexist (kyōzon suru sekai).
- 46.
Kurosawa Kiyoshi briefly employs the figure of the doppelgänger in his earlier film Séance (1999), in which the character of Satō (also played by Yakusho Kōji ) is silently confronted by his double after accidentally killing a young girl. In response, Satō sets the double on fire in particularly dramatic fashion in his backyard in a manner that probably references the apocryphal story of Catherine the Great (1729–1796), the eighteenth-century Empress of Russia (1762–1796), who is said to have once ordered her soldiers to set on fire her own doppelgänger when she saw it approach her.
- 47.
“Interview,” Kyua, directed by Kurosawa Kiyoshi (1997), translated as Cure , subtitled DVD (Chicago, IL: Home Vision Entertainment, 2003).
- 48.
Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 1: The Movement-Image, translated by Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), 12. In film criticism, the term mise-en-scène is practically synonymous with this aspect of the frame.
- 49.
Ibid., 12.
- 50.
Ibid., 12.
- 51.
Ibid., 14.
- 52.
Ibid., 14.
- 53.
Ibid., 14.
- 54.
Ibid., 14.
- 55.
Ibid., 17. See also Pascal Bonitzer, Peinture et cinéma: Décadrages (Paris: Editions de l’Etoile, 1985).
- 56.
Deleuze , Cinema 1, 16.
- 57.
Ibid., 16.
- 58.
Kurosawa Kiyoshi also makes use of split-screen techniques in Bright Future (Akarui mirai, 2003), which was released just nine months before Doppelgänger, but there it is used to visually underscore the generational gap between two characters rather than enframe the split between self and double.
- 59.
Andrew Scahill, “Happy, Empty: On Authorship and Influence in the Horror Cinema of Kiyoshi Kurosawa ,” Asian Journal of Literature, Culture and Society vol. 4, no. 2 (October 2010): 76 n. 14.
- 60.
It is noteworthy that when Kurosawa Kiyoshi was invited to choose films by other directors to complement some of his own for a series of double features organized by the Entrevues Belfort international film festival held on November 22–30, 2014, the director singled out Peckinpah , Aldrich, and Fleischer among others. See http://www.festival-entrevues.com/fr/retrospectives/2014/double-feature-kiyoshi-kurosawa (accessed October 29, 2015). For Kurosawa on Peckinpah , see Kurosawa Kiyoshi , Eizō no karisuma (Tokyo: Ekusu Narejji, 2006a), 5, 15, 26, 34, 36, 92, 101–02, 107, 166, 170, 238, 247, 261, 264, 268–70, 309, 326, 336. For Kurosawa on Aldrich, see Eizō no karisuma, 5, 166–69, 208, 239, 264, 284, 289–90, 296–99, 313, 326, 337. For Kurosawa on Fleischer, see Eizō no karisuma, 5, 92, 94–95, 104, 121, 140–67, 226, 264–65, 326, 337.
- 61.
“Interview,” Kyua.
- 62.
Deleuze , Cinema 1, 16.
- 63.
Andrew J. Webber, The Doppelgänger: Double Visions in German Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 3.
- 64.
Nikki J. Y. Lee, “‘Asia’ as Regional Signifier and Transnational Genre-Branding: The Asian Horror Omnibus Movies Three and Three … Extremes,” in East Asian Cinemas: Regional Flows and Global Transformations, edited by Vivian P. Y. Lee (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 111.
- 65.
Miike Takashi , “Audio Commentary for Box by Director Takashi Miike,” Three … Extremes , directed by Miike Takashi , Park Chan-wook, and Fruit Chan (2004), subtitled DVD (Santa Monica, CA: Lions Gate Home Entertainment, 2006).
- 66.
See Freud , “The Uncanny,” 142.
- 67.
Webber , 2–5.
- 68.
Andrew L. Markus, “The Carnival of Edo: Misemono Spectacles From Contemporary Accounts,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 45, no. 2 (December 1985): 529.
- 69.
Susan Stewart, On Longing: Narratives of the Miniature, the Gigantic, the Souvenir, the Collection (Durham; London: Duke University Press, 1993), 110.
- 70.
From a lecture Foucault gave on January 22, 1975. See Michel Foucault, Abnormal: Lectures at the Collège de France 1974–1975, translated by Graham Burchell (London: Verso, 2003), 65.
- 71.
Ibid., 66.
- 72.
Ibid., 66.
- 73.
Ibid., 66.
- 74.
Ibid., 65.
- 75.
Andrew N. Sharpe, Foucault’s Monsters and the Challenge of Law (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2010), 111. See also Foucault , Abnormal, 324.
- 76.
Sharpe, 127.
- 77.
Margrit Shildrick, Embodying the Monster: Encounters with the Vulnerable Self (London: Sage, 2002), 56.
- 78.
Sharpe, 115.
- 79.
Shildrick, 58.
- 80.
Quoted in Irving Wallace and Amy Wallace, The Two (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978), 150–51.
- 81.
Michel Foucault, “Man and His Doubles,” The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London; New York: Routledge, 1989), 370.
- 82.
Wallace and Wallace, The Two, 59.
- 83.
Ibid., 75.
- 84.
Alice Domurat Dreger, One of Us: Conjoined Twins and the Future of Normal (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004), 22.
- 85.
Wallace and Wallace, The Two, 98–99.
- 86.
Ibid., 150.
- 87.
Another film that evokes the original Siamese twins, Chang and Eng , is David Cronenberg’s twin horror Dead Ringers (1988). Cronenberg’s film includes a nightmarish dream sequence involving nonconjoined identical twins Elliot and Beverly Mantle (both played by Jeremy Irons) who appear suddenly conjoined in the dream. What haunts the dreamer most of all is not the conjoinment per se but rather the threat posed by a woman named Claire (Geneviève Bujold)—the romantic interest of the twin who is having the dream—who bites into the fleshy mass that conjoins the two brothers in the dream with her teeth, severing the bond that binds them. During the course of Dead Ringers, the twins experience both displacement anxiety and separation anxiety.
- 88.
Sigmund Freud, The Uncanny, translated by David McLintock (New York: Penguin Books, 2003), 150.
- 89.
William Cord, An Introduction to Richard Wagner’s Der Ring des Nibelungen: A Handbook (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1995), 133.
- 90.
John Williams quoted in Jon Burlingame, “John Williams Recalls Jaws,” The Film Music Society, August 14, 2012, http://www.filmmusicsociety.org/news_events/features/2012/081412.html?isArchive=081412 (accessed April 4, 2017).
- 91.
Ibid.
- 92.
Theodor Adorno , In Search of Wagner , translated by Rodney Livingstone (London: Verso, 2009), 36.
- 93.
Theodor Adorno and Hanns Eisler, Composing for the Films (New York: Continuum, 2010), 2.
- 94.
Ibid., 2–3.
- 95.
Ibid., 3.
- 96.
Mervyn Cooke, A History of Film Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 82.
- 97.
Ibid., 82.
- 98.
Adorno , In Search of Wagner , 36.
- 99.
Gilles Deleuze and Timothy S. Murphy, “Vincennes Seminar Session, May 3, 1977: On Music,” Discourse vol. 20, no. 3, Gilles Deleuze: A Reason to Believe in This World (Fall 1998): 213.
- 100.
Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari , A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, translated by Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 262.
- 101.
Deleuze , “Vincennes Seminar Session,” 213.
- 102.
Ibid., 211.
- 103.
Ibid., 213.
- 104.
Ibid., 214.
- 105.
Ibid., 210.
- 106.
“Audio Commentary for Box by Director Takashi Miike,” op. cit.
- 107.
On the anachronism of ghosts and their “deformation of linear temporality,” see Peter Buse and Andrew Scott, “Introduction: A Future for Haunting,” in Ghosts : Deconstruction, Psychoanalysis, History, edited by Peter Buse and Andrew Scott (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 1.
- 108.
“Audio Commentary for Box by Director Takashi Miike,” op. cit.
- 109.
Ibid. (translation modified).
- 110.
Miike makes similar use of a musical leitmotif in One Missed Call (Chakushin ari, 2003) involving a vengeful ghost who deterritorializes a cell phone’s address book to select its next victim.
- 111.
Shildrick, 63.
- 112.
Alice Domurat Dreger, “The Limits of Individuality: Ritual and Sacrifice in the Lives and Medical Treatment of Conjoined Twins,” Studies in History, Philosophy, Biology and Biomedical Science, vol. 29, no. 1 (1998): 26.
- 113.
Foucault , Abnormal, 66.
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Brown, S.T. (2018). Double Trouble: Doppelgängers in Japanese Horror. In: Japanese Horror and the Transnational Cinema of Sensations. East Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70629-0_3
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