Abstract
Brown looks back at the early beginnings of the “J-horror” genre before it became a globally recognized brand to underscore the movement’s transnational aspects. Undertaking a critical reassessment, Brown attends to J-horror’s transnational hybridity in relation to the larger networks of global cultural flows, including major and minor areas of influence, cross-fertilizations, and intermedial intersections with non-Japanese works of art, literature, folklore, and music. In addition to reconceiving Japanese horror by resituating it in relation to world horror cinema, Brown lays down the methodological groundwork for investigating J-horror’s aesthetics of “resonance” and the audiovisual techniques by which Japanese horror develops a cinema of sensations that fills viewers with atmospherically enhanced dread.
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Notes
- 1.
Nicholas Rucka, “The Death of J-Horror?” Midnight Eye, December 22, 2005, http://www.midnighteye.com/features/the-death-of-j-horror/ (accessed March 14, 2017).
- 2.
Ibid.
- 3.
Nakata Hideo directed a follow-up anthology in the same series, titled Scary True Stories : Curse, Death, & Spirit (Hontō ni atta kowai hanashi: Jushiryō, 1992).
- 4.
Takahashi provided screenplays for Don’t Look Up (Joyūrei; dir. Nakata Hideo ), Ring ( Ringu ; dir. Nakata Hideo , 1998), Haunted School G (Gakkō no kaidan G; dirs. Kurosawa Kiyoshi , Maeda Tetsu, and Shimizu Takashi , 1998), Ring 2 ( Ringu 2; dir. Nakata Hideo , 1999), Ring 0 ( Ringu 0: Bāsudei; dir. Tsuruta Norio , 2000), Requiem from the Darkness (Kyōgoku Natsuhiko kôsetsu hyakumonogatari; dir. Tonokatsu Hideki, 2003), Kazuo Umezu’s Horror Theater: Ambrosia (Umezu Kazuo: Kyōfu gekijō—Zesshoku; dir. Itō Tadafumi, 2005), Orochi: Blood (Orochi; dir. Tsuruta Norio , 2008), and The Sylvian Experiments (Kyōfu; dir. Takahashi Hiroshi , 2010).
- 5.
In addition to Marebito , other films included in the series were Fateful (Unmei ningen; dir. Nishiyama Yōichi, 2004), Sodom the Killer (Sodomu no Ichi; dir. Takahashi Hiroshi , 2004), and Honey Bullets for Moon Cat (Tsukineko ni mitsu no dangan; dir. Minato Hiroyuki, 2004).
- 6.
Michiko Iwasaka and Barre Toelken , Ghosts And The Japanese: Cultural Experience in Japanese Death Legends (Logan: Utah State University Press, 1994), 58.
- 7.
Publications that helped popularize paranormal urban legends (toshi densetsu) in Japan during the 1980s and 1990s include Matsutani Miyoko, Gendai minwa ko, 5 vols. (Tokyo: Tachikaze Shobō, 1986), Kihara Hirokatsu and Nakayama Ichirō, Shin mimibukuro: Anata no tonari no kowai hanashi (Tokyo: Fusōsha, 1990), and Tōru Tsunemitsu, Gakkō no kaidan : Kōshō bungei no tenkai to shosō (Kyoto: Mineruva Shobō, 1993). See also Washitani Hana, “ Ringu sanbusaku to onnatachi no media kūkan: Kaibutsu kasuru ‘onna,’ muku no ‘chichi,’” in Kaiki to gensō e no kairo : Kaidan kara J-horā e, edited by Uchiyama Kazuki (Tokyo: Shinwasha, 2008), 221 n.5; and Joaquín da Silva, “J-Horror and Toshi Densetsu Revisited,” January 4, 2016, http://eiga9.altervista.org/articulos/jhorrorandurbanlegendsrevisited.html (accessed May 5, 2017).
- 8.
Ibid., 58. The Brothers Grimm famously defined legend as “a folktale historically grounded, though loosely so.” See Hans Sebald, “Review of Norbert Krapf, Beneath the Cherry Sapling: Legends from Franconia,” German Studies Review vol. 13, no. 2 (May 1990): 312–313. See also Donald Ward, ed. and trans., The German Legends of the Brothers Grimm, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, Pa.: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1981), 1:1.
- 9.
Takahashi Hiroshi , “Interview with Producer Hiroshi Takahashi ,” Marebito , directed by Shimizu Takashi (2004), subtitled DVD (Los Angeles, CA: Tartan Video, 2006) (translation modified). On the usage of “J” as a signifier that not only “stands for ‘Japanese’ to both Japanese and international audiences” but also “at the same time announces a break from the putative tradition as self-consciously mass-cultural,” see Chika Kinoshita, “The Mummy Complex: Kurosawa Kiyoshi’s Loft and J-horror,” in Horror to the Extreme: Changing Boundaries in Asian Cinema, edited by Jinhee Choi and Mitsuyo Wada-Marciano (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2009), 121–122.
- 10.
Donald Kirihira , “Reconstructing Japanese Film,” in Post-Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies, edited by David Bordwell (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996), 501–503.
- 11.
Jasper Sharp , “Review of Introduction to Japanese Film,” Midnight Eye, March 9, 2009. http://www.midnighteye.com/books/introduction-to-japanese-horror-film/ (accessed April 14, 2017).
- 12.
See Andrew Dorman , Paradoxical Japaneseness: Cultural Representation in 21st Century Japanese Cinema (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 108–110; Steffen Hantke , “Japanese Horror under Western Eyes: Social Class and Global Culture in Miike Takashi’s Audition ,” in Japanese Horror Cinema, edited by Jay McRoy (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2005), 54–55.
- 13.
Takahashi , op. cit. (translation modified).
- 14.
The importance of non-Japanese cinematic traditions to the development of J-horror is underscored by Kurosawa Kiyoshi in his list of the “50 best horror films,” which is included in his study Eiga wa osoroshii (2001a). Alongside notable examples of classic Japanese horror cinema, such as Black Cat Mansion (Bōrei kaibyō yashiki; dir. Nakagawa Nobuo, 1958), Ghost of Yotsuya (Tōkaidō Yotsuya kaidan; dir. Nakagawa Nobuo, 1959), and Matango (Honda Ishirō, 1963), Kurosawa juxtaposes prominent European, American, and British horror films ranging from Nosferatu (dir. F. W. Murnau, 1922) to Vampyr (dir. Carl Theodor Dreyer, 1932), from Eyes without a Face (Les yeux sans visage; dir. Georges Franju, 1960) to The Innocents (dir. Jack Clayton , 1961), from Supiria (dir. Dario Argento, 1977) to Poltergeist (dir. Tobe Hooper, 1982). See Kurosawa Kiyoshi , Eiga wa osoroshii (Tokyo: Seidosha, 2001a), 28–43. See also J-horror screenwriter Konaka Chiaki’s contextualization of J-horror in relation to the history of world horror in Konaka Chiaki, Horā eiga no miryoku: Fandamentaru horā sengen (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 2003), 15–48. Konaka singles out for special mention The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (Das Cabinet des Dr. Caligari; dir. Robert Wiene, 1920), The Innocents , Kill Baby, Kill (Operazione paura; dir. Mario Bava, 1966), The Exorcist (dir. William Friedkin, 1973), The Legend of Hell House (dir. John Hough, 1973), The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (dir. Tobe Hooper, 1974), Carrie (dir. Brian De Palma , 1976), and Halloween (dir. John Carpenter, 1978), among others.
- 15.
See Valerie Wee, Japanese Horror Films and Their American Remakes (New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2014), 80–203; Stefan Sunandan Honisch, “Music, Sound, and Noise as Bodily Disorders: Disabling the Filmic Diegesis in Hideo Nakata’s Ringu and Gore Verbinski’s The Ring,” in Transnational Horror Cinema: Bodies of Excess and the Global Grotesque , edited by Sophia Siddique and Raphael Raphael (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 113–131; Daniel Herbert, “Trading Spaces: Transnational Dislocations in Insomnia/Insomnia and Ju-on/The Grudge,” in Fear, Cultural Anxiety, and Transformation: Horror, Science Fiction, and Fantasy Films Remade, edited by Scott A. Lukas and John Marmysz (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2009), 143–164; Colette Balmain, “Oriental Nightmares: The ‘Demonic’ Other in Contemporary American Adaptations of Japanese Horror Film,” in Something Wicked This Way Comes: Essays on Evil and Human Wickedness, edited by Colette Balmain and Lois Drawmer (Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi, 2009), 25–38; David Kalat, J-Horror: The Definitive Guide to The Ring, The Grudge and Beyond (New York: Vertical, 2007), 239–265; Dorman , 119–123; and Jinhee Choi and Mitsuyo Wada-Marciano, eds. Horror to the Extreme: Changing Boundaries in Asian Cinema (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2009), passim.
- 16.
Lúcia Nagib , “Towards a Positive Definition of World Cinema,” in Remapping World Cinema: Identity, Culture and Politics in Film, edited by Stephanie Dennison and Song Hwee Lim (London and New York: Wallflower Press, 2006), 35. As David Deamer puts it, “The Japanese film is not a closed system, nor does it have an internal unity, but rather is a system within the systems of world cinema.” See David Deamer , Deleuze , Japanese Cinema, and the Atom Bomb: The Spectre of Impossibility (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014), 22.
- 17.
Jay McRoy , “Case Study: Cinematic Hybridity in Shimizu Takashi’s Ju-on: The Grudge,” in Japanese Horror Cinema, edited by Jay McRoy (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2005a), 176.
- 18.
Ibid., 180.
- 19.
See Uchiyama Kazuki, ed., Kaiki to gensō e no kairo : Kaidan kara J-horā e (Tokyo: Shinwasha, 2008); Ōshima Kiyoaki, J-horā no yūrei kenkyū (Musashino: Akiyama Shoten, 2010); Jay McRoy , Nightmare Japan: Contemporary Japanese Horror Cinema (Amsterdam; New York, NY: Rodopi, 2008); Jay McRoy , ed., Japanese Horror Cinema (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2005b); Colette Balmain, Introduction to Japanese Horror Film (Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press, 2008); Jim Harper, Flowers from Hell: The Modern Japanese Horror Film (Hereford, UK: Noir Publishing, 2008); Salvador Murguia, ed., The Encyclopedia of Japanese Horror Films (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016); and David Kalat, J-Horror: The Definitive Guide to The Ring, The Grudge and Beyond (New York: Vertical, 2007).
- 20.
Robert Spadoni , “Carl Dreyer’s Corpse: Horror Film Atmosphere and Narrative,” in A Companion to the Horror Film, edited by Harry M. Benshoff (Chichester, West Sussex, UK; Malden, MA, USA: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 157–159. The final quotation on the temporality of dread is from Julian Hanich, Cinematic Emotion in Horror Films and Thrillers: The Aesthetic Paradox of Pleasurable Fear (New York: Routledge, 2010), 191. On dread in horror cinema, see also Cynthia Freeland, “Horror and Art-Dread,” in The Horror Film, edited by Stephen Prince (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2004), 189–205; and Noël Carroll, The Philosophy of Horror, or, Paradoxes of the Heart (New York: Routledge, 1990), 42.
- 21.
Here it is worth pointing out that the etymology of the Japanese term “kyōfukan,” which I have translated as “sensation of dread ,” has multiple senses and intensities depending upon the context. The“kyōfu” of “kyōfukan” may be translated not only as “dread ” but also “fear,” “terror,” “horror,” “scare,” “panic,” and “dismay.” Based on the overall context in which Takahashi uses the term, “sensation (or feeling) of dread ” seems the most apt.
- 22.
Jean Dalmais , “Resonance ,” in Sonic Experience: A Guide to Everyday Sounds, edited by Jean-François Augoyard and Henry Torgue , translated by Andra McCartney and David Paquette (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005), 99–100.
- 23.
“Resonance,” Oxford English Dictionary Online, Oxford University Press, http://www.oed.com.libproxy.uoregon.edu/view/Entry/163743?redirectedFrom=resonance& (accessed December 12, 2016).
- 24.
Dalmais , 110. See also Mark Vail, The Synthesizer: A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding, Programming, Playing, and Recording the Ultimate Electronic Music Instrument (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 9.
- 25.
Vail, 12.
- 26.
Vail, 63, 150, 161.
- 27.
Oxford English Dictionary. Cf. Vitruvius, De Architectura 5.3.
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
Ibid.
- 30.
Dalmais , 106.
- 31.
Oxford English Dictionary.
- 32.
Ibid.
- 33.
Ibid.
- 34.
Ibid.
- 35.
Esperanza Ramirez-Christensen, “Japanese Poetics,” in The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, edited by Roland Greene et al. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012), 759.
- 36.
Ibid.
- 37.
- 38.
Veit Erlmann , “Resonance ,” in Keywords in Sound, edited by David Novak and Matt Sakakeeny (Durham; London: Duke University Press, 2015), 177. On resonance in Descartes , see also Veit Erlmann , “Descartes’s Resonant Subject,” differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies vol. 22, nos. 2–3 (2011): 10–30; and Veit Erlmann , Reason and Resonance: A History of Modern Aurality (New York: Zone Books, 2010), 64–68.
- 39.
Erlmann , 181.
- 40.
Jean-Luc Nancy , À l’écoute (Paris: Galilée, 2002), 13–84.
- 41.
Jean-Luc Nancy , Listening, translated by Charlotte Mandell (New York: Fordham University Press, 2007), 21. On resonance and being, see also Martin Heidegger, Contributions to Philosophy (Of the Event), translated by Richard Rojcewicz and Daniela Vallega-Neu (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2012), 85–92, 189–90, 217, 334.
- 42.
Nancy , 21–22.
- 43.
Ibid., 21–22.
- 44.
Ibid., 7.
- 45.
Ibid., 7.
- 46.
On the “cinema of sensations ” and its Deleuzean underpinnings, see Barbara M. Kennedy , Deleuze and Cinema: The Aesthetics of Sensation (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000) and the insightful contributions to The Cinema of Sensations, edited by Ágnes Pethő (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2015). See also Thomas Elsaesser and Malte Hagener, Film Theory: An Introduction through the Senses (Florence: Taylor and Francis, 2015).
- 47.
Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari , What is Philosophy?, translated by Hugh Tomlinson and Graham Burchell (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 164.
- 48.
Deleuze and Guattari , 164.
- 49.
Ibid., 164. More broadly, Deleuze and Guattari situate percepts as the “nonhuman landscapes of nature” and affects as the “nonhuman becomings of man” (169).
- 50.
Ibid., 166.
- 51.
Ibid., 167.
- 52.
Ibid., 169.
- 53.
Kennedy , 108.
- 54.
Deleuze and Guattari , 175. Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 1: The Movement-Image, translated by Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), 61.
- 55.
Kennedy , 114.
- 56.
Ibid., 115.
- 57.
Deleuze and Guattari , 182.
- 58.
Ibid., 170. Deleuze and Guattari underscore the importance of style in going beyond “the perceptual states and affective transitions of the lived” (171).
- 59.
Ibid., 171.
- 60.
Ibid., 173–174, 177.
- 61.
Ibid., 173, 175.
- 62.
Although this study focuses on the aesthetics of sensation in Japanese horror cinema, I am sympathetic to Steven Jay Schneider’s general proposal for an “aesthetics of horror cinema” involving “medium-specific and ‘middle-level’ questions concerning those filmic (including narrative) techniques, principles, devices, conventions, and images that have arguably proven most effective and reliable when it comes to frightening viewers over time, across geographic and cultural borders” (131). See Steven Jay Schneider, “Toward and Aesthetics of Cinematic Horror,” in The Horror Film, edited by Stephen Prince (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2004b), 131–149.
- 63.
Friedrich Kittler, “Romanticism—Psychoanalysis—Film: A History of the Double ,” in Literature, Media, Information Systems, edited by John Johnston (New York: Routledge, 1997), 96.
- 64.
On the surrealist aspects of Ringu , see Adam Lowenstein , Dreaming of Cinema: Spectatorship, Surrealism, and the Age of Digital Media (New York : Columbia University Press, 2015), 88–89, 94–99, 114–116.
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Brown, S.T. (2018). Introduction. In: Japanese Horror and the Transnational Cinema of Sensations. East Asian Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70629-0_1
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