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Technological Specificity in Narrative Design: Story-Driven Videogame Series in an Upgrade Culture

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Abstract

This chapter focuses on the dimension of technological specificity within the console videogame industry, analysing the ways in which the sector’s technological ‘upgrade culture’, whereby the capacities of home and portable console platforms continually transform, frequently enables new approaches to videogame narrative. The chapter concentrates in particular on the ways in which the developers of three particular US-published large-budget story-driven videogame series—namely Halo, Red Faction and Grand Theft Auto—have altered narrative practices in response to transitions in console hardware—such as increased graphical processing power and the integration of touch-screen user input—during the course of these series’ respective runs. By establishing the complex relationship between technology and narrative, the chapter challenges a pervasive mindset within games studies whereby changing technological conditions of videogame development are disassociated from, or regarded as an impediment to, narrative innovation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Jon Dovey and Helen W. Kennedy, Game Cultures: Computer Games as New Media (Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2006), 52.

  2. 2.

    For key contributions to this debate, see Janet Murray, Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative (New York: Free Press, 1997); Gonzalo Frasca, ‘Ludology Meets Narratology: Similitude and Difference between (Video)Games and Narrative’, Ludology.org, 1999, http://www.ludology.org/articles/ludology.htm; Markku Eskilinen, ‘Towards Computer Game Studies’, in First Person: New Media as Story, Performance and Game, ed. Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Pat Harrigan (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004), 36–44; Espen Aarseth, ‘Genre Trouble: Narrativism and the Art of Simulation’, in First Person, ed. Wardrip-Fruin and Harrigan, 45–55; Jesper Juul, Half Real: Video Games between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005); Ryan, Avatars of Story, 181–203; Gordon Calleja, In-Game: From Immersion to Incorporation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), 113–133.

  3. 3.

    Marie-Laure Ryan, ‘Beyond Ludus: Narrative, Videogames and the Split Condition of Digital Textuality’, in Videogame, Player, Text, ed. Barry Atkins and Tanya Krzywinska (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), 14; Angela Ndalianis, Neo Baroque Aesthetics in Contemporary Entertainment (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004), 99–104; Geoff King, ‘Die Hard/Try Harder: Narrative, Spectacle and Beyond, From Hollywood to Videogame’, in ScreenPlay: Cinema/Videogames/Interfaces, ed. Geoff King and Tanya Krzywinska (London: Wallflower, 2002), 57–58; Andrew Darley, Visual Digital Culture: Surface Play and Spectacle in New Media Genres (London: Routledge, 2000), 149–151; Andrew Mactavish, ‘Technological Pleasure: The Performance and Narrative of Technology in Half-Life and other High-Tech Computer Games’, in ScreenPlay, ed. King and Krzywinska, 34.

  4. 4.

    Ryan, ‘Beyond Ludus’, 14; Mactavish, ‘Technological Pleasure’, 34.

  5. 5.

    Darley, Visual Digital Culture, 103, 106; Pierson, ‘CGI Effects in Hollywood Science-Fiction Cinema’; Bukatman, ‘Zooming Out’.

  6. 6.

    Darley, Visual Digital Culture, 155; Mactavish, ‘Technological Pleasure’, 34.

  7. 7.

    Prior examples of SDV include early text-based adventure games, such as Zork I (1980); the pioneering open-world games Elite (1984) and Grand Theft Auto (1997); id Software’s trailblazing first-person shooters Doom and Wolfenstein 3D (1992); the first generation of 3D, third-person adventure games, notably Tomb Raider (1996) and Super Mario 64 (1996); and the first wave of Japanese role-playing games (J-RPGs), which comprised Dragon Quest (1986), Final Fantasy (1987) and The Legend of Zelda (1986).

  8. 8.

    In contrast to the US television and comic-book markets, the videogame console industry is a far more globalised cultural market system (though publishers nevertheless often commission and target particular games for particular regional territories). Despite this distinction, I focus within this chapter on US published videogame series so as to maintain consistency with the other main case-study chapters.

  9. 9.

    Astrid Ensslin, The Language of Gaming (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 143.

  10. 10.

    Juul, Half Real, 36.

  11. 11.

    Eskilinen, ‘Towards Computer Game Studies’; Frasca, ‘Ludology Meets Narratology’.

  12. 12.

    Juul, Half Real, 196.

  13. 13.

    Calleja, In-Game, 115.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., 148.

  15. 15.

    Ryan, Avatars of Story, 190.

  16. 16.

    Ibid., 190.

  17. 17.

    Juul, Half Real, 202.

  18. 18.

    Dovey and Kennedy, Game Cultures, 6.

  19. 19.

    Henry Jenkins, ‘Game Design as Narrative Architecture’, in First Person, ed. Wardrip-Fruin and Harrigan, 122–123.

  20. 20.

    Michael Abbot, ‘Brainy Gamer Podcast—Episode 35, pt. 1’, Brainy Gamer podcast, 15 August 2011.

  21. 21.

    Jenkins, ‘Game Design as Narrative Architecture’, 126.

  22. 22.

    Edge Staff, ‘Places: Aperture Science’, Edge, 11 November 2011, http://media.nextgen.biz/features/places-aperture-science.

  23. 23.

    Ensslin, The Language of Gaming, 147.

  24. 24.

    See Rimmon-Kenan, Narrative Fiction, 61–70.

  25. 25.

    Margolin, ‘Character’, 73.

  26. 26.

    Anon., ‘Tech Interview: Halo: Reach’, Eurogamer, 11 December 2010, http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/digitalfoundry-halo-reach-tech-interview.

  27. 27.

    Damián Isla, ‘Handling Complexity in Halo 2 AI’ (paper presented at Game Developer Conference, San Francisco, California, 11 March 2005).

  28. 28.

    David L. Roberts, Mark O. Reidl and Charles L. Isbell, ‘Beyond Adversarial: The Case for Game AI as Storytelling’, Proceedings of DiGRA 2009, http://www.digra.org/dl/db/09287.57257.pdf.

  29. 29.

    Damián Isla, ‘Building a Better Battle: The Halo 3 AI Objectives System’ (paper presented at Game Developer Conference, San Francisco, California, 22 February 2008).

  30. 30.

    Ibid.

  31. 31.

    Calleja, In-Game, 120–122.

  32. 32.

    Ibid., 121. The quick time event, a device approximate to the cut-scene, is an animated sequence that requires a limited amount of player input (such as a button press at a designated instance).

  33. 33.

    Jo Bryce and Jason Rutter, ‘Spectacle of the Deathmatch: Character and Narrative in First-Person Shooters’, in ScreenPlay, ed. King and Krzywinska, 71; Ensslin, The Language of Gaming, 149.

  34. 34.

    Bob Rehak, ‘Of Eye Candy and Id: The Terrors and Pleasures of Doom 3’, in Videogame, Player, Text, ed. Atkins and Krzywinska, 151–152.

  35. 35.

    Aarseth, ‘Genre Trouble’, 50.

  36. 36.

    Geoff King and Tanya Krzywinska, introduction to ScreenPlay, ed. King and Krzywinska, 28.

  37. 37.

    Aarseth, ‘Genre Trouble’, 51.

  38. 38.

    Ryan, ‘Beyond Ludus’, 14.

  39. 39.

    Andrew Hutchinson, ‘Making the Water Move: Techno-Historic Limits in the Game Aesthetics of Myst and Doom’, Game Studies 8, No. 1 (September 2008), http://gamestudies.org/0801/articles/hutch.

  40. 40.

    Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost, ‘Random and Raster: Display Technologies and the Development of Videogames’, Annals of the History of Computing 31, No. 3 (2009), 34–43. Bogost and Montfort’s interest in technological specificity is further evident in their ‘Platform Studies’ book series. As part of this series, which Montfort and Bogost co-edit, each book considers a particular videogame hardware platform’s supports and constraints. Platforms considered within the series include the Atari VCS and the Nintendo Wii. Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost, Racing the Beam: The Atari Video Computer System (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009); Steven E. Jones and George K. Thiruvathukal, Codename Revolution: The Nintendo Wii Platform (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012).

  41. 41.

    For a review of McLuhan’s theories on technological determinism, see Stephen Kline, Nick Dyer-Witheford and Greg De Peuter, Digital Play: The Interaction of Technology, Culture and Marketing (Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003), 33–37.

  42. 42.

    Williams, Television, Technology and Cultural Form, 14, 124, 130.

  43. 43.

    Dovey and Kennedy, Game Cultures, 43–52.

  44. 44.

    Kline et al., Digital Play, 46–59.

  45. 45.

    Ibid., 82–83.

  46. 46.

    Dovey and Kennedy, Game Cultures, 52.

  47. 47.

    Ibid., 50–51.

  48. 48.

    For example, analysts suggested prior to the launch of the PlayStation 3 that Sony would lose $307 on each of the 20-gigabyte versions it sold (at launch price). James Niccolai, ‘Sony Losing Big Money on PS3 Hardware’, PC World, 16 November 2006, http://www.pcworld.com/article/127906/sony_losing_big_money_on_ps3_hardware.html.

  49. 49.

    See Tristan Donovan, Replay: The History of Video Games (Lewes: Yellow Ant, 2010), 265–267.

  50. 50.

    Kline et al. describe this advert and other promotional strategies of the period in detail in Kline et al., Digital Play, 153–154.

  51. 51.

    Jesper Juul, A Casual Revolution: Reinventing Video Games and their Players (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), 13.

  52. 52.

    ‘PS4 Pro: Introducing the Super-Charged PS4’, Playstation.com, https://www.playstation.com/en-gb/explore/ps4/ps4-pro/.

  53. 53.

    The Wii vastly outsold its home console contemporaries, the Xbox 360 and the PlayStation 3; the DS became in 2011 the largest selling console in the history of the US market. Brent Williams, ‘2010 Year on Year Sales and Market Share Update to June 26th’, VGChartz, 2 July 2011, http://www.vgchartz.com/article/80751/2010-year-on-year-sales-and-market-share-update-to-june-26th/; J. C. Fletcher, ‘Nintendo is Now Best-Selling Console Ever in the US’, Joystiq, 4 January 2011, http://www.joystiq.com/2011/01/04/nintendo-ds-is-now-best-selling-console-ever-in-us/.

  54. 54.

    James Newman, ‘The Myth of the Ergodic Videogame: Some Thoughts on Player-Character Relationships in Videogames’, Game Studies 2, No. 1 (July 2002), http://www.gamestudies.org/0102/newman/.

  55. 55.

    Dovey and Kennedy, Game Cultures, 47–69.

  56. 56.

    Amy Harmon, ‘Disney Rubs the Video Lamp’, Los Angeles Times, 5 June 1993, http://articles.latimes.com/1993-06-05/business/fi-43676_1_video-game-development.

  57. 57.

    Ralph Edwards, ‘The Economics of Game Publishing’, IGN, 6 May 2006, http://uk.games.ign.com/articles/708/708972p1.html.

  58. 58.

    Rob Crossley, ‘Study: Average Dev Costs as High as $28 m’, Develop, 11 January 2010, http://www.develop-online.net/news/33625/Study-Average-dev-cost-as-high-as-28m.

  59. 59.

    Tristan Donovan provides a useful chapter on the emergence of this development scene. Donovan, Replay, 357–369.

  60. 60.

    Tony Ponce, ‘Max Payne 3 Potentially Cost $105 Million to Develop’, Destructoid, 10 September 2011, https://www.destructoid.com/max-payne-3-potentially-cost-105-million-to-develop-211058.phtml; Brendan Sinclair, ‘GTA V Dev Costs Over $137 Million, Says Analyst’, gamesindustry.biz, http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2013-02-01-gta-v-dev-costs-over-USD137-million-says-analyst.

  61. 61.

    James Newman, Videogames (London: Routledge, 2004), 37.

  62. 62.

    Dovey and Kennedy provide a more detailed consideration of the game engine’s role. Dovey and Kennedy, Game Cultures, 57–59.

  63. 63.

    Ibid., 58–59.

  64. 64.

    Ibid., 47–49.

  65. 65.

    Separate to this process, the console market has also seen the emergence in the 2010s of an alternative mode of videogame financing, in the form of crowdfunding via sites such as Kickstarter, which enable online users to financially contribute to studios’ projects. Due to the relatively low amount of money they typically generate, crowdfunding campaigns are more suited to the financing of smaller titles rather than projects intended for the full-price boxed-retail games sector. For analysis of how crowdfunding influences processes of videogame development, see Anthony N. Smith, ‘The Back-Developer Connection: Exploring Crowdfunding’s Influence on Video Game Production’, New Media & Society 17, No. 2 (2015), 198–214.

  66. 66.

    Dovey and Kennedy, Game Cultures, 49–50.

  67. 67.

    Stephen Totilo, ‘Why Activision Let Go of Ghostbusters and 50 Cent games’, MTV Multiplayer, 11 May 2008, http://multiplayerblog.mtv.com/2008/11/05/why-activision-let-go-of-ghostbusters-and-50-cent-games/Wire.

  68. 68.

    For example, with regard to full-priced boxed-retail games, 34 sequels to ongoing console game series were released in the last four months of 2011 (the industry’s busiest period). In comparison, only seven non-sequel licensed games (based on multi-media franchises and sports/pop-culture personalities) were released, and only three were based on original intellectual properties.

  69. 69.

    Dovey and Kennedy, Game Cultures, 47.

  70. 70.

    Ibid., 59. Epic’s Unreal Engine, for example, has proved particularly appropriate for first/third-person shooters and adventure games. This is demonstrated by its implementation in not only Epic’s own Unreal Tournament and Gears of War franchises, but also the Mass Effect, BioShock (2007–2013) and Batman: Arkham series.

  71. 71.

    343 Industries, a subsidiary of Microsoft Studios, took over the development reins of the Microsoft-owned Halo franchise subsequent to Reach.

  72. 72.

    Rob Taylor, ‘Halo: Reach: Creative Director on the Tech, AI and World of Reach’, Computer and Video Games, 24 August 2010, http://www.computerandvideogames.com/261532/interviews/halo-reach/.

  73. 73.

    Tom Ivan, ‘Halo: Reach “Bending the Xbox as Far as it’ll Bend”’, Edge, 22 January 2010, http://www.next-gen.biz/news/halo-reach-ìbending-xbox-far-itll-bendî.

  74. 74.

    Xi Wang, ‘Automated Level of Detail Generation in Halo: Reach’ (presentation given at Game Developers Conference, San Francisco, California, 4 March 2011).

  75. 75.

    Dan Ryckert, ‘Halo: Reach Developer Commentary’, Game Informer, 25 January 2010, http://www.gameinformer.com/b/features/archive/2010/01/25/halo-reach-dev-commentary.aspx.

  76. 76.

    LikeTotallyAwesome, ‘Halo: Reach Interview’, YouTube, 13 September 2010, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EeMVt0wLuIg.

  77. 77.

    Geoff King and Tanya Krzywinska, Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders: Videogame Forms and Contexts (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005), 87.

  78. 78.

    Mathew Kumar, ‘Bungie on Eight Years of Halo AI’, Gamasutra, 6 August 2008, http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=19653.

  79. 79.

    Anon., ‘Tech Interview: Halo: Reach’.

  80. 80.

    The game’s vehicular missions, however, are often exceptions to this rule.

  81. 81.

    Sketch, ‘Halo: Reach—3D Art Evolved’, Bungie, 26 January 2010, http://www.bungie.net/news/content.aspx?type=topnews&cid=24541.

  82. 82.

    Matt Miller, ‘Halo: Reach’, Game Informer, February 2010, 56.

  83. 83.

    Barry Atkins, More than a Game: The Computer Game as Fictional Form (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), 63.

  84. 84.

    IGN’s review, for example, commented that the game lacked an ‘outstanding depth of field’. Aaron Boulding, ‘Halo Review’, IGN, 9 November 2001, http://uk.xbox.ign.com/articles/165/165922p1.

  85. 85.

    For example, one reviewer remarked, ‘The single most impressive visual flair to Halo 3 has to be the draw distance, the sense of scale is somewhat mind-numbingly beautiful.’ Wayne Julian, ‘Halo 3 Review’, MS Xbox World, 24 September 2007, http://www.msxboxworld.com/xbox360/reviews/136/halo-3/review.html.

  86. 86.

    Digital Foundry, ‘Tech Analysis: Halo: Reach’, Eurogamer, 18 September 2010, http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/digitalfoundry-halo-reach-tech-analysis-article.

  87. 87.

    Taylor, ‘Halo: Reach: Creative Director on the Tech, AI and World of Reach’.

  88. 88.

    Miller, ‘Halo: Reach’, 56.

  89. 89.

    The critic Steven Poole, for example, suggests, ‘This alternation of cut-scenes and playable action delivers a very traditional kind of storytelling yoked rather arbitrarily to essential videogame challenges of dexterity and spatial thought.’ Steven Poole, Trigger Happy: The Inner Life of Videogames (London: Fourth Estate, 2000), 109.

  90. 90.

    Edge Staff, ‘Halo: Reach—Tales of the Fall’, Edge, 21 January 2010, http://www.next-gen.biz/features/halo-reach-tales-fall.

  91. 91.

    Marie-Laure Ryan, ‘From Narrative Games to Playable Stories’, Storyworlds 1, No. 1 (2009), 50.

  92. 92.

    Games such as the PC FPS Half-Life had previously provided deformable environments, but the amounts of damage that these earlier games permit are more limited.

  93. 93.

    Joe Fielder, ‘Red Faction Review’, Gamespot, 23 May 2001, http://uk.gamespot.com/ps2/action/redfaction/review.html; David Smith, ‘Red Faction II’, IGN, 9 October 2002, http://uk.ps2.ign.com/articles/373/373878p1.html.

  94. 94.

    Gamesweasel, ‘Red Faction: Guerilla Interview with Sean Kennedy’, YouTube, 22 May 2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZhV-o_cH26w&.

  95. 95.

    2.0, ‘Red Faction: Guerrilla Developer Interview: Smashy Smashy’, True Game Headz, 1 June 2009, http://www.truegameheadz.com/blogheadz/red-faction-guerrilla-developer-interview-smashy-smashy/.

  96. 96.

    GamingOnly, ‘Interview Red Faction: Guerilla with Producer Rick White’, YouTube, 17 September 2008, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sip7dh2qC7U&.

  97. 97.

    Gamesweasel, ‘Red Faction: Guerilla Interview with Sean Kennedy’.

  98. 98.

    GamePro, ‘Red Faction: Guerrilla: Developer Interview’, MetaCafe, 9 August 2009, http://www.metacafe.com/watch/3151591/red_faction_guerrilla_developer_interview/.

  99. 99.

    Anon., ‘Red Faction: Guerilla Interview 1’, Gamespot, 23 March 2009, http://uk.gamespot.com/xbox360/action/redfactioniii/video/6206516.

  100. 100.

    Ibid.; GamePro, ‘Red Faction: Guerrilla: Developer Interview’.

  101. 101.

    Tom Orry, ‘Red Faction: Guerilla Preview’, VideoGamer.com , 14 April 2009, http://www.videogamer.com/xbox360/red_faction_3/preview-1628.html.

  102. 102.

    Ibid.

  103. 103.

    Ben Fritz, ‘Dan Houser’s Very Extended Interview About Everything GTA IV’, Variety, 19 April 2008, http://weblogs.variety.com/the_cut_scene/2008/04/dan-housers-ver.html.

  104. 104.

    Darley, Visual Digital Culture, 31.

  105. 105.

    Dovey and Kennedy, Game Cultures, 53–57; King and Krzywinska, Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders, 125–152.

  106. 106.

    Edge Staff, ‘The Making of Grand Theft Auto IV’, Edge, 18 March 2008, http://www.next-gen.biz/features/making-grand-theft-auto-iv.

  107. 107.

    Hilary Goldstein, ‘GTA IV: Building a Brave New World’, IGN, 28 March 2008, http://uk.xbox.360.ign.com/articles/863/863028p1.html; Fritz, ‘Dan Houser’s Very Extended Interview About Everything GTA IV’.

  108. 108.

    Ibid.

  109. 109.

    Edge Staff, ‘The Making of Grand Theft Auto IV’.

  110. 110.

    Edge Staff, ‘Grand Theft Auto IV Review’, Edge, 13 May 2008, http://www.next-gen.biz/reviews/grand-theft-auto-iv-review.

  111. 111.

    Fritz, ‘Dan Houser’s Very Extended Interview About Everything GTA IV’.

  112. 112.

    Ibid.

  113. 113.

    Ibid.

  114. 114.

    King and Krzywinska, Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders, 129.

  115. 115.

    Adam Doree, ‘Welcome to Grand Theft Auto IV’, VideoGamesDaily, 25 May 2007, http://archive.videogamesdaily.com/news/200705/101_p2.asp.

  116. 116.

    Edge Staff, ‘The Making of Grand Theft Auto IV’.

  117. 117.

    Craig Harris, ‘Rockstar Leeds Talks GTA DS’, IGN, 25 February 2009, http://uk.ds.ign.com/articles/957/957177p1.html.

  118. 118.

    The Gamespot review, for example, noted the unusualness of the freedom to roam that GTA provides. Ryan MacDonald, ‘GTA: Grand Theft Auto: European Version Review’, GameSpot, 6 May 1998, http://uk.gamespot.com/ps/adventure/grandtheftauto/review.html.

  119. 119.

    Harris, ‘Rockstar Leeds Talks GTA DS’.

  120. 120.

    Greg Ford, ‘Exclusive Grand Theft Auto: Chinatown Wars Interview’, 1up, 5 December 2008, http://www.1up.com/previews/grand-theft-auto-chinatown-wars_2.

  121. 121.

    Ibid.

  122. 122.

    Harris, ‘Rockstar Leeds Talks GTA DS’.

  123. 123.

    Elizabeth Evans observes that similar assumptions regarding portable media usage (as opposed to technological constraints) led to episodes of the 24 transmedia extension series 24: Conspiracy being far shorter than those of the related television series. Evans, Transmedia Television, 123–124.

  124. 124.

    Ford, ‘Exclusive Grand Theft Auto: Chinatown Wars Interview’.

  125. 125.

    In contrast, to replicate such game play with a traditional controller would require the manoeuvring of a cursor via analogue stick, a process that would likely be fiddly and tedious.

  126. 126.

    Harris, ‘Rockstar Leeds Talks GTA DS’.

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    Anthony N. Smith

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Smith, A.N. (2018). Technological Specificity in Narrative Design: Story-Driven Videogame Series in an Upgrade Culture. In: Storytelling Industries. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70597-2_5

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