Monarchy and the Search for Order in Mexico

Shawcross, Edward

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70464-7_3

Monarchy and the Search for Order in Mexico

Edward Shawcross⁴

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First Online: 07 February 2018

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Part of the book series: Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series ((CIPCSS))

Abstract

Chapter 3 analyses monarchism in Mexico and its place in French discourse towards Mexico. Latin-American independence had an important international dimension as rival nations competed for influence over the new states. Within this struggle, monarchy had strategic significance for France because it was seen, in the 1820s, as a way of countering British power and, from the 1830s onwards, as one potential means of constraining the United States. Long before Louis-Napoléon launched his intervention in 1861, the French Bourbon Restoration had wanted to place Bourbon princes on the thrones of Spain’s former colonies. Because of these European connections, there is a strong case for placing Mexican monarchism in a transnational context. Moreover, the failure of a monarchy with a Mexican as ruler (the First Mexican Empire under Iturbide ) meant that for those in Mexico who favoured the creation of a new kingdom, a European monarch was a necessity, and without European support this project could not have been realised. The endurance of the idea that monarchy was the form of government best-suited to Mexico amongst French and Mexican observers thus forms the focus of the chapter. This chapter addresses the question why French policymakers and some Mexican politicians saw an empire under a foreign prince (Maximilian and the Second Mexican Empire) as a legitimate means to save the Mexican nation.

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Notes

1.
Chateaubriand , Voyage en Amérique, 220–21.
2.
José Manuel Hidalgo y Esnaurrízar, Apuntes para escribir la historia de los proyectos de monarquía en México, desde el reinado de Carlos III hasta la instalación del emperador Maximiliano (Paris: Librería Española de Garnier Hermanos, 1868), xxi.
3.
For example, Delmon, ‘Les acteurs de la politique impériale’, 77–78.
4.
O’Gorman, La supervivencia; Pani, ‘La innombrable: monarquismo’.
5.
Gabriac to Walewski , 10 October 1857, AAE, CP Mexique, 47.
6.
Alamán , Historia de México, V, 582. Alamán called the empire “a throne that was subject to ridicule from its inception”, ibid., V, 521.
7.
Fowler, Age of Proposals, 13–17.
8.
Agustín de Iturbide , A Statement of Some of the Principal Events in the Public Life of Agustín de Iturbide , trans. Michael Joseph Quin (London: J. Murray, 1824), 11.
9.
Alamán , Historia de Mexico, I, 334–36.
10.
Anna, Mexican Empire, 8–9.
11.
‘Plan de independencia de la América Septentrional Iguala , 24 de Febrero de 1821’ printed in Porrúa, Documentos, 200–03.
12.
Richard Morse, ‘The Heritage of Latin America’, in Louis Hartz (ed.), The Founding of New Societies: Studies in the History of the United States , Latin America, South Africa, Canada, and Australia (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964), 160. David Brading claims “the royalist establishment […] staged a coup d’état against a liberal metropolis’, The Origins of Mexican Nationalism (Cambridge: Centre of Latin American Studies, 1985), 56. Florencia Mallon calls it a “conservative declaration of independence”, ‘Indigenous Peoples and Nation-States in Spanish America, 1780–2000’, in Moya, Oxford Handbook of Latin American, 285.
13.
Lorenzo de Zavala , Ensayo histórico de las revoluciones de México: Desde 1808 hasta 1830, 2 vols. (Paris: P. Dupont and G. Laguionie, 1831), I, 172–73.
14.
Rodriguez prefers the term “autonomists” to make clear that this group did not support Spanish colonial rule, but rather autonomy within the Spanish empire and later independence under a constitutional monarchy headed by a Spanish prince, True Spaniards, 273.
15.
Alamán , Historia de México, V, 427–28; 449–51; 458; 541; Doris Ladd, The Mexican Nobility at Independence, 1780–1826 (Austin: Institute of Latin American Studies; The University of Texas, 1976), 124–25; Rodriguez, True Spaniards, 272–73.
16.
‘Exposición presentada a las Cortes por los diputados de ultramar en la sesión de 25 de junio de 1821, sobre el estado actual de las provincias de que eran representantes, y medios convenientes para su definitiva pacificación; redactada por encargo de los mismos diputados por D. Lucas Alamán y D. José Mariano de Michelena’, in Alamán , Historia de México, V, 781–96.
17.
The conservative view of 27 September is discussed by Rodríguez Piña, ‘Conservatives Contest the Meaning of Independence’, 1846–1855’. See also Christon Archer , ‘Death’s Patriots—Celebration, Denunciation, and Memories of Mexico’s Independence Heroes: Miguel Hidalgo , José María Morelos , and Agustín de Iturbide ’, in Lyman Johnson (ed.), Death, Dismemberment and Memory (New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press, 2004).
18.
See Rodriguez, True Spaniards, 325–34 and Nettie Lee Benson, The Provincial Deputation in Mexico: Harbinger of Provincial Autonomy, Independence, and Federalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992).
19.
Hale, Liberalism, 79. Timothy Anna, ‘Agustín de Iturbide and the Process of Consensus’, in Christon Archer (ed.), The Birth of Modern Mexico, 1780–1824 (Delaware: SR Books, 2003), 187–204. On the influence of the Constitution of 1812 see Scott Eastman and Natalia Sobrevilla Perea (eds.), The Rise Constitutional Government in the Iberian World: The Impact of the Cádiz Constitution of 1812 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2015).
20.
Jaime Rodriguez, ‘Intellectuals and the Mexican Constitution of 1824 ’, in Roderic Ai Camp, Charles Hale and Josefina Zoraida Vázquez (eds.), Los intelectuales y el poder en México: memorias de la VI Conferencia de Historiadores Mexicanos y Estadounidenses (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1991), 67.
21.
‘Acta Constitutiva de la Féderación Mexicana’, 31 January 1824, printed in Porrúa, Documentos, 246–55.
22.
‘Ensayo histórico sobre los gobiernos federados’, El Federalista (Mexico City), 15 August, pp. 61–4; ‘Continúa el ensayo histórico comenzado en el numero 16’, ibid., 29 August, pp. 73–76; ‘Continúa el ensayo histórico, y concluye el artículo de la confederación germánica’, ibid., 5 September, pp. 81–84; ‘Continúa el ensayo histórico’, ibid., 9, 12, 16, 19, 23, 26, 30 September, 3, 7, 10 and 14 October 1823, pp. 85–88, 89–91, 93–94, 97–100, 101–04, 105–06, 109–11, 113–15, 117–19, 121–24 and 125–28.
23.
Servando Teresa de Mier , Memoria político-instructiva, enviada desde Filadelfia en agosto de 1821, á los gefes independientes del Anáhuac (Philidelphia: Juan F. Hurtel, 1821), 45–46; 66.
24.
Miguel Ángel Castro and Guadalupe Curiel (eds.), Publicaciones periódicas mexicanas del siglo XIX, 1822-1855: fondo antiguo de la Hemeroteca Nacional y fondo reservado de la Biblioteca Nacional de México (Mexico City: UNAM, 2000), 413–19.
25.
Article two of the Declaration of the Rights of Man: “The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.” Printed in Gérard Conac, Marc Debene and Gérard Teboul (eds.), La déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen de 1789: histoire, analyse et commentaires (Paris: Économica, 1993), 361–65. El Sol was noticeably silent on “resistance to oppression”.
26.
‘Política. Continúa el anterior’, El Sol, 29 December 1821, pp. 31–32; ‘Apuntes sobre las bases principales y demas objetos públicos, que deben tenerse presentes para establecer un gobierno franco, liberal justo y equitativo’ and ‘Concluye el anterior’, ibid., 2 and 5 February 1822, p. 73 and p. 77.
27.
‘El Poder soberano’, ibid., 23 February 1822, p. 97.
28.
‘Gobierno’, El Sol, 27 April 1822, pp. 181–83.
29.
‘Política’, ibid., 29 December 1821, p. 31; ‘Gobierno’, ibid., 15 May 1822, pp. 207–08.
30.
M. F. del Z. [sic], Sueño de un republicano, ó sean reflexiones de un anciano sobre la república federada (Puebla: Imprenta liberal de Moreno hermanos, 1822).
31.
‘Papeles públicos’, El Sol, 13 March 1822, pp. 123–24.
32.
‘Proyectos republicanos’, El Sol, 11 May and 15 May 1822, 201–02 and 205–07.
33.
‘Proyectos republicanos’, El Sol, 11 May and 15 May 1822, pp. 201–02 and 205–07.
34.
Fowler, Age of Proposals, 18–21; Brading, Origins, 64.
35.
See Harold Dana Sims, The Expulsion of Mexico’s Spaniards, 1821–1836 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990).
36.
Fowler provides a list of those associated with the escoceses in Age of Proposals, 53, fn 62.
37.
‘Note remise à M. Samouel à son passage à la Nouvelle Orléans’ enclosed in Schmaltz to Fleury, 10 May 1824, AAE, ADP Mexique, 1.
38.
Joel Poinsett to Martin van Buren, 10 March 1829, in Manning, Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States Concerning the Independence of the Latin-American nations, 3 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1925), III, 1678–80.
39.
Alamán to Tornel , 24 May 1830, AHGE, Estados-Unidos, L. 17; e.2.
40.
Lucas Alamán , Defensa del ex ministro de Relaciones D. Lucas Alamán : En causa formada contra él y contra los exmininistros de Guerra y Justicia de Vicepresidente D. Anastasio Bustamante first published 1834 and reprinted in Lucas Alamán , Documentos diversos: inéditos y muy raros … Compilación de Rafael Aguayo Spencer, 4 vols. (Mexico City: Editorial Jus, 1945–47), III, 41. Alamán restated these charges in Historia de México, V, 623–24. See also Alamán to Tornel , 2 August 1830, AHGE, Estados-Unidos, L. 17; e.2.
41.
‘Proyectos contra El Tiempo, su acusación’, El Tiempo (Mexico City), 20 February 1846, front page.
42.
Fowler, Age of Proposals, 5.
43.
A quote from Lord Salisbury in Andrew Roberts, Salisbury: Victorian Titan (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1999), 435.
44.
For the evolution of Alamán ’s constitutional thought, see Catherine Andrews, ‘In the Pursuit of Balance. Lucas Alamán ’s Proposals for Constitutional Reform (1830–1835)’, Historia constitucional, 8 (2007), 13–37.
45.
For the Federal Republic, see Anna, Forging Mexico. For the Central Republic, Costeloe, The Central Republic.
46.
A five-thousand strong crowd sacked and looted the Parián market, the main commercial centre in Mexico City. On the riot see Silvia Arrom, ‘Popular Politics in Mexico City: The Parian Riot, 1828’, The Hispanic American Historical Review, 68 (1988), 245–68.
47.
Noriega, El pensamiento conservador, I, ch. 3; Fowler, Age of Proposals, 60; David Brading, The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots and the Liberal State, 1492–1867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 646.
48.
Andrews, ‘In Pursuit of Balance’, 16–17; Lucas Alamán , Examen imparcial de la administración del general vicepresidente D. Anastasio Bustamante . Con observaciones generales sobre el estado presente de la República y consecuencias que éste debe producer printed in Alamán , Documentos diversos, III, 245.
49.
Andrews, ‘In Pursuit of Balance’, 26–33.
50.
Costeloe, Central Republic, 100–04. On this constitutional innovation see Frida Osorio Gonsen, ‘Seeking a Balance of Power through a Neutral Third Party Mechanism, The Mexican Supreme Conservative Power (1836–1841)’, Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, 33 (2017), 125–52; Catherine Andrews, ‘El debate político de la década de 1830 y los origenes de las Siete Leyes’, in Cecilia Noriega and Alicia Salmerón (eds.), México: un siglo de historia constitucional, 1808–1917 (Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Dr José María Luis Mora , 2009), and David Pantoja Morán, ‘Las Siete Leyes Constitucionales. Presupuestos históricos y teoría constitucional subyacentes al diseño de sus insituciones’, in ibid., and David Pantoja Morán, El supremo poder conservador: el diseño institucional en las primeras constituciones mexicanas (Mexico City: El Colegio de México; Zamora, Michoacán: El Colegio de Michoacán, 2005).
51.
Costeloe, Central Republic, 106; Fowler, Age of Proposals, 67–68.
52.
Morán, ‘Las Siete Leyes Constitucionales’, 196.
53.
Francisco Manuel Sánchez de Tagle , Discurso del señor Don Francisco Manuel Sánchez de Tagle en la sesión del 15 de diciembre, sobre creación de un Poder Conservador (Mexico City: Imprenta de J.M. Fernández de Lara, 1835), 9.
54.
Noriega, Pensamiento conservador, I, 103–15. Sánchez de Tagle defended the Supreme Conservative Power in Sánchez de Tagle , Discurso del señor Don Francisco Manuel Sánchez de Tagle .
55.
María Luna Argudín, ‘De Guadalupes a borbonistas: desarrollo y proyección política de Fagoaga , Sardaneta y Sánchez de Tagle (1808–1824)’, Secuencia, 38 (1997), 25–50.
56.
O’Gorman, La Supervivencia política, 27.
57.
Lucas Alamán to Santa Anna , 23 February 1837, Alamán , Documentos diversos, IV, 152–56.
58.
‘Mexico 19 de Octobre’, El Registro Oficial del Gobierno de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Mexico City), 19 October 1830, pp. 139–40.
59.
Arrangoiz , Méjico desde 1808, II, 236–37; Niceto de Zamacois, Historia de Méjico, desde sus tiempos más remotos hasta nuestros días, 18 vols. (Barcelona-Mexico City: J.F. Párres, 1877–82), XII, 102–03.
60.
José María Gutiérrez de Estrada , Carta dirigida al Excmo. Sr. … necesidad de buscar en una convención el posible remedio de los males que aquejan a la república, y opiniones del autor acerca del mismo asunto (Mexico City: Ignacio Cumplido, 1840), 24–27.
61.
Sanders, ‘Proposals for Monarchy in Mexico’, 124–25. Gutiérrez de Estrada ’s correspondence with Mora is in the BLAC, José María Luis Mora archive.
62.
See Michael Costeloe, ‘A Pronunciamiento in Nineteenth Century Mexico: 15 de julio de 1840’, Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, 4 (1988), 245–64.
63.
Frances Erskine Inglis Calderón de la Barca, Life in Mexico, During a Residence of Two Years in that Country, 2 vols. (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown), I, 352–53.
64.
Gutiérrez de Estrada , Carta dirigida, 26.
65.
José María Gutiérrez de Estrada , Le Mexique et l’archiduc Ferdinand Maximilien d’Autriche (Paris: Garnier frères, 1862), 9. A point Gutiérrez de Estrada also made to the British economist William Senior Nassau in a conversation of 1863. Senior , Conversations with Distinguished Persons, II, 275–76.
66.
Gutiérrez de Estrada , Carta dirigida, 31–35.
67.
Ibid., 40–41; 44–45.
68.
Ibid., 37. Emphasis in the original.
69.
Ibid., 68–69; 80–82.
70.
Ibid., 73–74.
71.
Gutiérrez de Estrada , Carta dirigida, 42–43.
72.
For the liberal influences on Gutiérrez de Estrada ’s monarchism, see Gabriela Tío Vallejo, ‘La monarquía en México: historia de un desencuentro. El liberalismo monárquico de Gutiérrez Estrada’, Secuencia, 30 (1994), 33–56.
73.
Hale, Liberalism, 28–29. Prior to returning to Mexico, Gutiérrez de Estrada had spent some time in Paris. He had dinner with the newly appointed French minister to Mexico, de Cyprey, before the diplomat departed for his new post. Garro to foreign minister, 6 September 1839, AHGE, Francia, L. 23; e. 238.
74.
The parliamentary systems of the Bourbon Restoration and the July Monarchy were, of course, based on the British model, but its application in Catholic France in the aftermath of a republic had obvious relevance for Mexico.
75.
Gutiérrez de Estrada , Carta dirigida, 3; 16–18; 20–21; 43–44.
76.
Ibid., 46–47.
77.
Sierra, Juárez , 298–99.
78.
Calderón de la Barca, Life in Mexico, II, 4–7.
79.
Costeloe, Central Republic, 171–72.
80.
He reiterated his views seven years later in Gutiérrez de Estrada , México en 1840 y en 1847 (Mexico City: Imprenta de Vicente G. Torres; Paris: impr. de Lacrampe y hijo, 1848). In 1846 he secured an interview with Louis Phillipe. Gutiérrez de Estrada to Guizot , 11 September 1846, ADP, 46/3.
81.
José Bernardo Couto to Mora , 25 October 1840, BLAC, José Luis Mora archive.
82.
Gutiérrez de Estrada to Mora , 3 June 1843, BLAC, José Luis Mora archive.
83.
Fowler, Tornel and Santa Anna , ch. 13 and Fowler, Age of Proposals, 219–64.
84.
Chateaubriand , Voyage en Amérique, 220–21.
85.
De Pradt, Des colonies, II, 299.
86.
Ibid., I, xiii.
87.
Raoul de Cisternes, Le duc de Richelieu, 25.
88.
Chateaubriand , Congress of Verona, 209.
89.
Ibid., 231–32.
90.
Villèle , Mémoires, IV, 200–01 and 239–40.
91.
Prince de Polignac to Villèle in Villèle , Mémoires, V, 74.
92.
For example, Tomás Murphy Sr to unnamed, 2 January 1826, José María Bocanegra to Murphy Jr, 30 January and 16 July 1829, AHGE, Francia, L. 4; e. 25. Mexican fears were reported back to France, Schmaltz to Fleury, 18 February 1824, AAE, CP Mexique, 2.
93.
‘Estado actual de la nación’, El Sol, 4 and 5 January 1824, p. 816 and pp. 818–19.
94.
The view that monarchy was the form of government best-suited to Mexico was held by numerous British commentators. For example, Robert William Hale Hardy, Travels in the Interior of Mexico in 1825, 1826, 1827 & 1828 (London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley, 1829), 514–17; Ward, Mexico in 1827, I, 303; Mark Beaufoy, Mexican Illustrations, Founded upon Facts; Indicative of the Present Condition of Society, Manners, Religion, and Morals, among the Spanish and Native Inhabitants of Mexico: With Observations upon the Government and Resources of the Republic of Mexico, as They Appeared during Part of the Years 1825, 1826, and 1827, etc. (London: Carpenter and Son, 1828), 103–17; George Frederick Augustus Ruxton, Adventures in Mexico and the Rocky Mountains (London: John Murray, 1847), 105–06. Even the US Minister concluded in the 1840s that Mexico was not ready for institutions as “free” as those of the United States . Waddy Thompson, Recollections of Mexico (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1846), 246–51. On persistence of the belief in Spain, see Michael Costeloe, Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions 1810–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
95.
Beltrami , Le Mexique, I, xxxi.
96.
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, ‘Quelques mots sur Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte’, in Oeuvres de Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, 3 vols. (Paris: M. Charles-Édouard Temblaire, 1848), II, 330.
97.
Prince de Polignac to Alamán , 6 August 1823, AAE, AD Mexique, 1.
98.
‘Atrocités libérales dans le Mexique’, La Quotidienne (Paris), 27 February 1829, second page.
99.
‘Extérieur. Amérique. – Vera-Cruz (Mexique), 12 décembre’, Le Constitutionnel (Paris), 26 February 1829, front page.
100.
Tomás Murphy Jr to foreign minister, 26 November 1828. AHGE, Francia, L. 4; e. 25.
101.
‘Note remise à M. Samouel à son passage à la Nouvelle Orléans’ enclosed in Schmaltz to Fleury, 10 May 1824, AAE, ADP Mexique, 1.
102.
Deffaudis to foreign minister, 3 March 1835, AAE, CP Mexique, 9.
103.
‘Note remise à M. Samouel à son passage à la Nouvelle Orléans’ enclosed in Schmaltz to Fleury, 10 May 1824, AAE, ADP Mexique, 1.
104.
Mora to Gomez Farías, 20 May 1845, BLAC, Valentín Gomez Farías Collection.
105.
José C. Valadés, Alamán, estadista e historiador (Mexico City: UNAM, 1987), 66–68; 140–41.
106.
‘Instructions données aux personnes envoyées au Mexique’, 29 November 1823, AAE, CP Mexique, 2.
107.
Deffaudis to Broglie , 11 June and 15 July 1833, AAE, CP Mexique, 8.
108.
Broglie to Deffaudis , 24 November 1833, AAE, CP Mexique, 8.
109.
Broglie to Deffaudis , 2 May 1834, AAE, CP Mexique, 8.
110.
De Cyprey to Thiers , 11 August 1840, AAE, CP Mexique, 19.
111.
De Cyprey to Guizot , 25 September, AAE, CP Mexique, 21.
112.
De Cyprey to Thiers , 13 July and 28 September 1840, AAE, CP Mexique, 19; De Cyprey to Thiers , 15 October 1840, AAE, CP Mexique, 19.
113.
Garro to SRE, 6 September 1839, AHGE, Francia, L. 23; e. 238.
114.
De Cyprey to Thiers , 30 November 1840, AAE, CP Mexique, 19.
115.
Gutiérrez de Estrada published the letter in Le Mexique et l’archiduc Ferdinand, 15–17.
116.
De Cyprey to Thiers , 27 October 1840, AAE, CP Mexique, 19; de Cyprey to Guizot , 21 January 1841, AAE, CP Mexique, 23.
117.
De Cyprey to Thiers , 27 October 1840, AAE, CP Mexique, 19.
118.
De Cyprey to Guizot , 17 April 1842, AAE, CP Mexique, 22; de Cyprey to Guizot , 8 January 1844, AAE, CP Mexique, 26.
119.
Guizot to de Cyprey, 11 March 1841, AAE, CP Mexique, 20.
120.
José María Ortiz Monasterio to José Máximo Garro, AHGE, Francia, L. 20; e. 206.
121.
For example, Félix Clavé, ‘La Question du Mexique—Relations du Mexique avec les États-Unis, l’Angleterre et la France’, Revue des deux mondes, 12 (1845), 1053; Gabriel Ferry , ‘Guerre entre les États-Unis et le Mexique, scènes et episodes de l’invasion’, Revue des deux mondes, 19 (1847), 429; Fossey, Le Mexique, 520–25.
122.
‘France, Paris, 12 septembre’, Journal des débats, 13 September 1842, first and second pages. The paper reiterated these views after the outbreak of the US-Mexican War . ‘France. Paris, 18 septembre’, Journal des débats, front page.
123.
His work was not published until 1843. Isidore Löwenstern , Le Mexique: souvenirs d’un voyageur (Paris: A. Bertrand, 1843). See Margarita Pierini, ‘Literatura Mexicana Un viajero austriaco en México. Los Recuerdos de Isidore Löwenstern (1838)’, Literature Mexicana, 14 (2003), 7–42.
124.
It is also striking that he used the term “conservative party” and contrasted it with the “democratic party”, which he qualified as the “destructive party”. This is the identical language that Alamán used in 1850: “the Conservative Party has existed amongst us from the moment that the opposite party was born, [the] destructive”. El Universal (Mexico City), ‘Los conservadores y la nación—(concluye)’, 10 January 1850, front page.
125.
Calderón de la Barca, Life in Mexico, II, 7.
126.
Löwenstern , Le Mexique, 455–64.
127.
Michel Chevalier, ‘Variétés: Le Mexique, souvenirs d’un voyageur, par M. Isidore Lowenstern. – Paris, chez Arthus Bertrand’, Journal des débats, 17 September 1843, third and fourth pages.
128.
Chevalier, Des mines, 90–91.
129.
Eugène Duflot de Mofras , Exploration du territoire de l’Orégon, des Californies et de la mer Vermeille, exécutée pendant les années 1840, 1841 et 1842, 2 vols. (Paris: Arthus Betrand, 1844), I, 29–32.
130.
Gutiérrez de Estrada claimed it was written by “a distinguished writer, today an eminent member of the senate”. In all probability, he is referring to Chevalier. Gutiérrez de Estrada , Le Mexique et l’archiduc, 15–18.
131.
Ibid., 23. Emphasis in the original.
132.
Justo Sierra , Juárez ; su obra y su tiempo (Mexico City: J. Ballescá, 1905), 300.

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Shawcross, E. (2018). Monarchy and the Search for Order in Mexico. In: France, Mexico and Informal Empire in Latin America, 1820-1867. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70464-7_3

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