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The Making of Society

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A Genealogical History of Society

Part of the book series: SpringerBriefs in Sociology ((BRIEFSSOCY))

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Abstract

The modern concept of society as objective entity first took shape in the 1820s. It involved the assumption that the human world was governed by an inherent mechanism of operation and change and that human subjects were therefore not natural, autonomous, and timeless individuals, but the historical products of a certain state of civilization. The process of theoretical rethinking that resulted in the new concept originated in the frustration of expectations with the outcomes of the liberal regime. That frustration led some people to raise doubts about the theoretical premises of liberalism, based on the concepts of the individual and of human nature, and to attempt to find more accurate and efficacious theoretical tools to fulfil the promised harmonic and stable political order. Given that the critics attributed the failure of liberalism to its theoretical flaws, they proceeded to reverse the terms of the individualist theory. The result was the formulation of a new theoretical paradigm founded on the concept of society and a new theory of human action based on the notion of social causality. This process of critical reaction against liberalism and the subsequent operation of theoretical inversion of individualism were mainly embodied in the work of authors such as Auguste Comte and the Saint-Simonians.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    [“Car la société n’est point une simple agglomération d’êtres vivants, dont les actions indépendantes de tout but final, n’ont d’autre cause que l’arbitraire des volontés individuelles, ni d’autre résultat que des accidents éphémères ou sans importance; la société au contraire est un tout, une véritable machine organisée dont toutes les parties contribuent d’une manière différente à la marche de l’ensemble. La réunion des hommes constitue un véritable être, dont l’existence est plus ou moins vigoureuse ou chancelante, suivant que ses organes s’acquittent plus ou moins régulièrement des fonctions qui leur sont confiées.”] Henri Saint-Simon, “De la Physiologie sociale appliqué à l’amélioration des institutions sociales,” Opinions littéraires, philosophiques et industrielles, Paris, 1825, pp. 228–229. This is one of the first statements in which some components of the modern concept of society are already recognizable. Mainly, the distinction the author makes between the constitutive parts (human beings) and the (social) whole as two entities different in nature, which is one of the theoretical cornerstones of such a concept.

  2. 2.

    Condorcet (2002 [1795]).

  3. 3.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society” [1822], in Auguste Comte, Early Political Writings, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 49/“Plan des travaux scientifiques nécessaires pour reorganizer la société,” Écrits de jeunesse, 1816–1828, Paris-The Hague: École Pratique des Hautes Études and Mouton, 1970, p. 241.

  4. 4.

    Ibid., p. 50/242.

  5. 5.

    Ibid., 54/245.

  6. 6.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Tome I, Paris/La Haye, Mouton, 1973, Lettre à Valat, 25 décembre 1824, p. 147. Or, as he writes some years later, the present “social situation” is characterized by “a profound and more and more extended anarchy” (Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, Paris, 1839, p. 8.).

  7. 7.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 21.

  8. 8.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 25 décembre 1824, p. 147.

  9. 9.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 9.

  10. 10.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Tome I, Paris/La Haye, Mouton, 1973, Lettre à Valat, 25 décembre 1824, p. 147.

  11. 11.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 97/281.

  12. 12.

    Ibid., p. 72/260.

  13. 13.

    Ibid.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., p. 69/257.

  15. 15.

    Ibid., pp. 65–66/254–255.

  16. 16.

    Ibid., p. 69/257. “The formation of any sort of plan of social organization is necessarily composed of two series of operations, totally distinct in their object, as well as in the kind of capacity they demand. One, theoretical or spiritual, has as its goal the development of the seminal idea of the plan, that is of the new principle according to which social relations must be co-ordinated, and the formation of the system of general ideas intended to serve as a guide for society. The other, practical or temporal, determines the mode of distribution of power and the system of administrative institutions which are in closest conformity with the spirit of the system as settled by the theoretical operations. The second series being founded on the first, of which is only the consequence and the realization, it is with the first that the general work must begin. The first series is the soul, the most important and the most difficult part, even though only preliminary.” (Ibid., pp. 65–66/255).

  17. 17.

    Ibid., p. 77/244.

  18. 18.

    Ibid., p. 56/246.

  19. 19.

    “De quelques articles du Constitutionel et du Journal des Débats,” Le Producteur, 2 (1826), p. 195.

  20. 20.

    P. J. Rouen, “Examen d’un nouvel ouvrage de M. Dunoyer, ancien rédacteur du Censeur Européen,” Le Producteur, 2 (1826), pp. 162–163.

  21. 21.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 57/247–248.

  22. 22.

    Ibid., p. 57/248.

  23. 23.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 43.

  24. 24.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 62/252.

  25. 25.

    Ibid., p. 76/264.

  26. 26.

    Ibid., pp. 78–79/266.

  27. 27.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 13. As it is well known, the terms “critical” and “organic” come from Saint-Simon.

  28. 28.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 25 décembre 1824, p. 148.

  29. 29.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 85/271.

  30. 30.

    St. A. B., “De l’esprit critique,” Le Producteur, 3 (1826), p. 121.

  31. 31.

    “De quelques articles du Constitutionel et du Journal des Débats,” Le Producteur, 2 (1826), pp. 195–196.

  32. 32.

    Klinck (1994), p. 705.

  33. 33.

    Ibid. Klinck cites authors such as Baker (1989) and Wokler (1987).

  34. 34.

    The term “individualism” began to be used after 1810 and was commonly used in the 1820s. This term generally referred to the conception of the human being that underlies liberalism and classical Political Economy and whose origin traces back to Eighteenth-Century Enlightened thought. See Cassina (1996), as well as Swart (1962), Claeys (1986), and Piguet (2008).

  35. 35.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 30 mars 1825, p. 156.

  36. 36.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 55/246.

  37. 37.

    Ibid. This argument is repeated almost literally in Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, pp. 47 and 211–212.

  38. 38.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 25 décembre 1824, p. 148.

  39. 39.

    Ibid., Lettre à Valat, 25 décembre 1824, p. 148.

  40. 40.

    P. J Rouen, “Examen d’un nouvel ouvrage de M. Dunoyer, ancien rédacteur du Censeur Européen,” Le Producteur, 2 (1826), p. 159. Rouen characterizes the liberal theory like this: “The main base of all political theories of modern times is taken from the science of individual man, studied by different methods. It is deduced from either the rights and duties or the needs and faculties, and therefore from the individual freedom or individual sovereignty, from which national sovereignty, elective representation, etc. are born.”

  41. 41.

    Ibid.

  42. 42.

    Ibid.

  43. 43.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 86/272. Comte attributes this conception of the human being to authors such as Rousseau, whom he criticizes. According to Comte, the view of the “supporters of metaphysical politics, like Rousseau,” of “the social state as the degeneration of a state of nature” was “invented by their imagination” and is no more than the “metaphysical analogue of the theological idea relating to the degradation of the human race by original sin.” (p. 89/274). That is why Comte calls Rousseau a “simple sophist” (Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 251.).

  44. 44.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 87/273.

  45. 45.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 24 septembre 1819, p. 59. “Il résulte de là que les prétendues observations faites sur l’esprit humain considéré en lui-même et à priori sont de pures illusions; et qu’ainsi tout ce qu’on appelle logique, métaphysique, idéologie, est une chimère et une rêverie, quand ce n’est point une absurdité.”

  46. 46.

    Ibid.

  47. 47.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 83/269.

  48. 48.

    Ibid, p. 97/282. These are, he writes later, “natural tendencies” that push “man to improve incessantly” (Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 364.).

  49. 49.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 83/269.

  50. 50.

    Ibid., p. 83/269–270.

  51. 51.

    Ibid., p. 83/269.

  52. 52.

    Ibid., p. 52/244.

  53. 53.

    “Fragmens Philosophiques, par Victor Cousin,” Le Producteur, 3 (1826), pp. 331–332 and 335 and “Fragmens Philosophiques, par Victor Cousin,” Deuxième Article, Le Producteur, 4 (1826), pp. 20 y 23–25.

  54. 54.

    “De l’inégalité,” Le Producteur, 3 (1826), p. 492.

  55. 55.

    P. J. Rouen, “Examen d’un nouvel ouvrage de M. Dunoyer, ancien rédacteur du Censeur Européen,” pp. 159–160.

  56. 56.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 66/255.

  57. 57.

    P. J. Rouen, “Examen d’un nouvel ouvrage de M. Dunoyer, ancien rédacteur du Censeur Européen,” p. 160.

  58. 58.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 87/272. Emphasis mine.

  59. 59.

    That new science of society or of the social was at first coined by Comte as “social physics” (Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à d’Eichthal, 5 août 1824, p. 109). Later, he replaced this label with that of “sociology.”

  60. 60.

    B. Z., “De la Physiologie,” Le Producteur, 3 (1826), p. 122.

  61. 61.

    Ibid., p. 132.

  62. 62.

    Ibid.

  63. 63.

    Ibid., pp. 132–133.

  64. 64.

    Ibid., p. 133.

  65. 65.

    Ibid.

  66. 66.

    B. Z., “Physiologie. Des termes de passage de la physiologie individuelle à la physiologie sociale,” Le Producteur, 4 (1826), pp. 80–82.

  67. 67.

    Ibid., p. 86.

  68. 68.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Premier, 1830, pp. 93–94.

  69. 69.

    Ibid., p. 94.

  70. 70.

    Ibid., p. 95.

  71. 71.

    Le Producteur brands the liberal political theory and individualism as “metaphysical,” at the same time as it denies them any capacity of “social reorganization.” (Le Producteur, 4 (1826), p. 347).

  72. 72.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de Philosophie Positive, Tome Premier, p. 4.

  73. 73.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 83/269. For Comte, any notion of a priori is “gloomy metaphysics” and a “profound obstacle” for elaborating a “positive philosophy,” that is, a scientific theory of human phenomena. In this point, he is criticizing the Kantian conception of this matter. (Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à d’Eichthal, 5 août 1824, pp. 106–107).

  74. 74.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 15 juin 1818, p. 42. He writes below that “our absurd education system instill in us all too much absolute ideas.” The expression “relativist conversion” is also used by Gouhier (1933, p. 227) to describe this episode of Comte’s intellectual biography.

  75. 75.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 15 mai 1818, p. 37. Some years later he will state: “Everything is relative; that is the only absolute principle.” (Système de politique positive, T. IV, Appendice Général, Préface Spéciale, Paris, 1854, p. 2). As early as 1817, he had also written: “It is no longer a question of expounding interminably in order to know what is the best government; speaking in an absolute sense, there is nothing good, there is nothing bad; the only absolute is that everything is relative; everything is relative especially when social institutions are concerned.” (“Premier aperçu d’un travail sur le gouvernement parlementaire, considéré comme régime transitoire” (Écrits de jeunesse, 1816–1828, Paris-The Hague, École Pratique des Hautes Études and Mouton, 1970, p. 71. Translation taken from Pickering (1993, p. 113).

  76. 76.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 106/289.

  77. 77.

    P. E., “Considérations sur les progrès de l’économie politique, dans ses rapports, avec l’organisation sociale” (premier article), Le Producteur, 4 (1826), p. 373.

  78. 78.

    Ibid., pp. 379–380.

  79. 79.

    “Fragmens Philosophiques, par Victor Cousin,” p. 20.

  80. 80.

    Ibid., p. 22.

  81. 81.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 90/276.

  82. 82.

    Ibid., p. 93/278.

  83. 83.

    Ibid., p. 97/281.

  84. 84.

    Ibid., p. 108/291.

  85. 85.

    Ibid., pp. 95–96/279–280.

  86. 86.

    Ibid., p. 97/281–282.

  87. 87.

    Ibid., pp. 93–94/278.

  88. 88.

    Ibid., p. 94/278.

  89. 89.

    Ibid., p. 95/279.

  90. 90.

    Doctrine de Saint-Simon: exposition. Première année, 1828–1829 (Troisième édition revué et augmentée), Paris, 1831, p. 107.

  91. 91.

    Ibid., p. 114.

  92. 92.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 94/278–279.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., p. 95/279.

  94. 94.

    Ibid., pp. 90–91/276.

  95. 95.

    Ibid., p. 91/276.

  96. 96.

    Ibid., p. 92/277.

  97. 97.

    Ibid., p. 93/277–278.

  98. 98.

    Ibid., p. 96/280.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., p. 96/280–281.

  100. 100.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 366.

  101. 101.

    That is, for example, the term used by Reardon (Reardon 1971, p. 528) when characterizing the approach of authors such as Philippe Buchez and Comte.

  102. 102.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 91/276.

  103. 103.

    Ibid., p. 51/243.

  104. 104.

    Auguste Comte, “Summary Appraisal of the General Character of Modern History,” Auguste Comte, Early Political Writings, p. 25–26/“Sommaire appréciation de l’ensemble du passé moderne” [1820], Écrits de jeunesse, 1816–1828, pp. 222–223. The expression “new social system” is on p. 32/228.

  105. 105.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 92/277.

  106. 106.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 341.

  107. 107.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 8 septembre 1824, p. 128.

  108. 108.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 88/273–274.

  109. 109.

    Ibid, p. 92/277. He writes elsewhere that “the political regime” is, “in the long run, of all necessity, radically in accordance with the corresponding state of civilization.” (Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 336).

  110. 110.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 106/289. Here Comte uses the terms “social state” and “state of civilization” synonymously.

  111. 111.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 8 septembre 1824, p. 128.

  112. 112.

    Ibid.

  113. 113.

    Auguste Comte, “Summary Appraisal of the General Character of Modern History,” pp. 23–24/220–221.

  114. 114.

    Ibid., p. 23, note c/221, note 1.

  115. 115.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 88/273/274.

  116. 116.

    Ibid., pp. 88–89/274.

  117. 117.

    Ibid., p. 89/275.

  118. 118.

    The terms in inverted commas in ibid., p. 104/ 289.

  119. 119.

    Ibid., p. 90/275.

  120. 120.

    Ibid., p. 106/289.

  121. 121.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 308.

  122. 122.

    Comte continues to argue: “But in spite of that, then we see in the political order a series of events which are connected in the same way as if the men who were their agents had acted in accordance with a plan, may we not employ this assumption so as better to bring out this connectedness?” This is the case in natural sciences, “where, to present a group of phenomena more clearly, we attribute systematic intentions and designs even to unorganized matter” (“Summary Appraisal of the General Character of Modern History,” p. 24/221).

  123. 123.

    The critique of this theory and that of natural contract in general, of which it is a part, has a long history and occupied an outstanding place, for instance, in the work of some Scottish Enlightenment authors. Yet the new critique substantially differs, in its terms and goals, from the previous one. The first critics never call the concept of the individual into question, but only maintain that human beings are sociable by nature and that social ties are therefore natural and not voluntary, instead of the work of legislators. The new critics, on the contrary, deny the existence of natural individuals as such and conceive of social ties as historically and objectively shaped phenomena.

  124. 124.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 108/290.

  125. 125.

    Ibid., p. 108/291.

  126. 126.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 245.

  127. 127.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 337.

  128. 128.

    Ibid., pp. 337–338.

  129. 129.

    Ibid.

  130. 130.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” pp. 97–98/282.

  131. 131.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 8 septembre 1824, p. 129.

  132. 132.

    Ibid. “Je suis très-persuadé que le gouvernement turc est susceptible de grands perfectionnements par des mesures convenables; mais je ne crois pas que cela pût aller aussi loin qu’on le suppose d’ordinaire avec les idées d’absolu et de toute-puissance des combinaisons politiques. Les Turcs me paraissent être à peu près dans l’état où nous nous trouvions entre le sixième siècle et le onzième, et certes celui qui alors eût tenté d’établir chez nous ce qu’on appelle une constitution libérale aurait été un grand fou.”

  133. 133.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 97/281.

  134. 134.

    Ibid., p. 108/290–291.

  135. 135.

    Ibid., p. 103/286.

  136. 136.

    Ibid., p. 100/284.

  137. 137.

    Ibid., p. 101/285.

  138. 138.

    Ibid., p. 102/285–286.

  139. 139.

    Auguste Comte, “Summary Appraisal of the General Character of Modern History,” p. 10.

  140. 140.

    Ibid., p. 11.

  141. 141.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 231.

  142. 142.

    Ibid., p. 238.

  143. 143.

    Ibid., pp. 238–239.

  144. 144.

    Ibid., pp. 229–230.

  145. 145.

    P. J. Rouen, “Examen d’un nouvel ouvrage de M. Dunoyer, ancien rédacteur du Censeur Européen,” Le Producteur, 2 (1826), pp. 160–161.

  146. 146.

    We should remember that, for the critics, the present state of civilization is characterized by the predominance of “industry” and the political regime should therefore concur with this fact. This issue, however, lies beyond the scope of my work and I shall not deal with it here.

  147. 147.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 112/294.

  148. 148.

    “He [Condorcet] was the firstˮ, Comte writes, “to see clearly that civilization is subjected to a progressive course all of whose steps are rigorously connected to each other according to natural laws, which can be unveiled by philosophical observation of the past. For each era these laws determine in a wholly positive manner the improvements which the social state is called to experience, whether in its parts or in its overall shape.” (Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 116/297. Comte considers Condorcet to be his “immediate predecessor” (Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à d’Eichthal, 5 août 1824, p. 106). On the Comtian assessment of Condorcet, see also Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, pp. 253 y 259.

  149. 149.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 116/297.

  150. 150.

    “De quelques articles du Constitutionnel et du Journal des Débats,” Le Producteur, 2 (1826), p. 197.

  151. 151.

    Ibid., p. 196.

  152. 152.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 243. He later refers to “the necessary subordination of social events to invariable natural laws” (pp. 259–260). That is why Comte considers that the main merit of authors such as Montesquieu was to first formulate “the general idea of law” with regard to human phenomena (p. 243).

  153. 153.

    Ibid., p. 310.

  154. 154.

    Ibid., pp. 312 and 313.

  155. 155.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Jefferson, 16 juillet 1824, p. 99.

  156. 156.

    Ibid., Lettre à Valat, 8 septembre 1824, p. 127.

  157. 157.

    Ibid., Lettre à Jefferson, 16 juillet 1824, p. 99.

  158. 158.

    Auguste Comte, “Summary Appraisal of the General Character of Modern History,” p. 34, note h/230, note 1. Comte makes use of the expression “social theories” in Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Prémier, p. 111.

  159. 159.

    Auguste Comte, Correspondance Générale et Confessions, Lettre à Valat, 15 mai 1818, p. 37. At this point, Comte makes a distinction between two kinds of works: those which are not founded on observation (like Rousseau’s The Social Contract) and those which are (such as Hume’s History of England and Robertson’s History of Charles V).

  160. 160.

    P. A. D., “Deuxième lettre au rédacteur sur les adversaires que doit rencontrer la doctrine du Producteur,” Le Producteur, 3 (1826), p. 31.

  161. 161.

    Ibid., p. 35.

  162. 162.

    Ibid.

  163. 163.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 99/282.

  164. 164.

    Ibid., p. 99/283.

  165. 165.

    Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, Tome Quatrième, p. 391.

  166. 166.

    Ibid., p. 313.

  167. 167.

    Ibid., p. 307.

  168. 168.

    Ibid., p. 391.

  169. 169.

    Ibid., p. 394.

  170. 170.

    Ibid., p. 396.

  171. 171.

    Auguste Comte, “Plan of the Scientific Work Necessary for the Reorganization of Society,” p. 99/283.

  172. 172.

    Ibid.

  173. 173.

    Ibid., p. 100/284.

  174. 174.

    Ibid.

  175. 175.

    Ibid.

  176. 176.

    Ibid., p. 99/283.

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  1. Department of History, University of La Laguna, La Laguna, Spain

    Miguel A. Cabrera

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Cabrera, M.A. (2018). The Making of Society. In: A Genealogical History of Society. SpringerBriefs in Sociology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70437-1_2

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