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Slavery, Abolition and the Contractarian Approach in the Indian Ocean: The Case of Mauritius

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Labor on the Fringes of Empire

Part of the book series: Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies ((IOWS))

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Abstract

This chapter discusses the limits of contractualism on the labor market after the abolition of slavery. It presents the origins and forms of the indentured immigration to Mauritius, followed by the forms of coercion and resistance in great detail, using plantation, police and justice archives. The experiences of immigrants and the enormous difficulties they encountered in defending their rights demonstrate the limits of formal equality in front of the law when it is not integrated with procedural rights, impartial law courts and political freedom. Yet, as this chapter also shows, there is the deep connection between the evolution of labor law and labor practices in Mauritius and in Britain (evolution and enforcement of the Masters and Servants Acts, Poor Laws).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    A few references, for more see notes below. William Gervase Clarence-Smith, ed., The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade (London: Frank Cass, 1989); Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory (London: J. Currey, 1987); Allen, Slaves; Edward Alpers, Gwyn Campbell, and Michael Salman, eds., Slavery and Resistance in Africa and Asia (London: Routledge, 2005); Gwyn Campbell, ed., Abolition and Its Aftermath in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (London: Routledge, 2005); James Francis Warren, The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State, 2nd edn. (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1981; repr., Singapore: National University of Singapore, 2007); Richard Allen, European Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean, 1500–1850 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2015).

  2. 2.

    Ralph Austen, “The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade: a Tentative Census”, in Jan S. Hogendorn, ed., The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York: Academic Press, 1979): table 2.8: 66; Ralph Austen, “The Nineteenth Century Islamic Slave Trade from East Africa (Swahili and Red Sea Coasts): a Tentative Census”, Slavery and Abolition, 9 (1988): 21–44.

  3. 3.

    Paul Lovejoy, Transformations of Slavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000): 61–62, 155–158.

  4. 4.

    Ralph Austin, “The Nineteenth century Islamic Slave Trade from East Africa (Swahili and Red Sea Coasts): A Tentative Census”, in William Gervase Clarence-Smith, ed., The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade (London: Frank Cass, 1989): 21–44.

  5. 5.

    Allen, European Slave Trade.

  6. 6.

    Campbell, “Introduction” to Gwyn Campbell, ed., The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (London: Frank Cass, 2004): i–xxxii.

  7. 7.

    Schottenhammer, “Slaves and Forms of Slavery in Late Imperial China”, in Campbell, The Structure: 145.

  8. 8.

    Edmond B. Martin, T.C. Ryan, “A Quantitative Assessment of the Arab Slave Trade of East Africa, 1770–1896”, Kenya Historical Review, 5, 1 (1977): 71–91.

  9. 9.

    William Ochsenwald, Religion, Society, and the State in Arabia: the Hijaz under the Ottoman Control (Columbus: Ohio University Press, 1984).

  10. 10.

    Gwyn Campbell, An Economic History of Imperial Madagascar, 1750–1895: The Rise and Fall of an Island Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005): 295–296.

  11. 11.

    Bruno Lasker, Human Bondage in Southeast Asia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1950): 147, 150.

  12. 12.

    Richard Allen, Slaves, Freedmen and Indentured Laborers in Colonial Mauritius (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999): 14.

  13. 13.

    Jean-Marie Filliot, La traite des esclaves vers les Mascaraignes au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Orstom, 1974): 96.

  14. 14.

    Richard Allen, “Slaves, Convicts, Abolitionism and the Global Origin of post-Emancipation Indentured Labor System “, Slavery and Abolition, 35, 2 (2014): 328–348. Also: Marina Carter and James Ng Fong Kwoong, Forging the Rainbow: Labour Immigrants in British Mauritius (Mauritius, 1997); Richard Allen, “The Constant Demand of the French: The Mascarene Slave Trade and the Worlds of the Indian Ocean and Atlantic during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries”, Journal of African History, 49, 1 (2008): 43–72.

  15. 15.

    Monica Schuler, “The Recruitment of African Indentured Laborers for European Colonies in the Nineteenth Century”, in Pieter Emmer, ed., Colonialism and Migration: Indentured Labor before and after Slavery (Dordrecht, Boston, Lancaster: Martinus Nijhoff, 1986): 125–161; Hubert Gerbeau, “Quelques aspects de la traite illégale des esclaves à Bourbon au XIXe siècle”, Mouvements de populations dans l’Océan Indien (Paris: Imprimerie Champion, 1979): 273–296; Louis Maillard, Notes sur l’île de la Réunion (Paris: Dentu, 1862).

  16. 16.

    Richard Allen, “The Mascarene slave-trade and labour migration in the Indian ocean during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.” In Campbell, The Structure: 33–50, in particular: 37–38.

  17. 17.

    Gwyn Campbell, “Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810–1895”, Journal of African History 22, 2 (1981): 203–227.

  18. 18.

    Schuler, “The Recruitment”.

  19. 19.

    Nigel Worden, Elizabeth van Heyningen and Vivian Bickford-Smith, Cape Town: The Making of a City (Cape Town: David Philip, 2004): 109.

  20. 20.

    Clare Anderson, Subaltern Lives: Biographies of Colonialism in the Indian Ocean World, 1790–1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

  21. 21.

    Alessandro Stanziani, Sailors, Slaves and Immigrants in the Indian Ocean World (New York: Palgrave, 2014).

  22. 22.

    Claude Wanquet, “Violences individuelles et violence institutionnalisée: le régime servile de l’Ile de France à la fin du XVIIIe siècle à la lumière des dossiers de procédure criminell”, in Edmond Maestri, ed., Esclavage et abolition dans l’Océan Indien, 1723–1860 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2002): 203–226; Hubert Gerbeau, ‘Les Indiens des Mascaraignes. Simples jalons pour l’histoire d’une réussite (XVIle–XXe siècle)’. Annuaire des pays de Indian Ocean, XII (1990–1991): 15–45, Éditions du CNRS/Presses universitaires d’Aix-Marseilles, 1992.

  23. 23.

    Musleem Jumeer, Les affranchissements et les libres à l’ile de France à la fin de l’Ancien Régime, 1768–1789 (PhD, Université de Poitiers, 1979): 24, 54, 105, 212–214.

  24. 24.

    Hubert Gerbeau, “Engagees and coolies on Reunion Island: slavery’s masks and freedom’s constraints”, in Emmer, Colonialism: 209–237.

  25. 25.

    Vijayalakshmi Teelock, Bitter sugar: sugar and slavery in nineteenth century Mauritius (Moka: Mahatma Gandhi Institute, 1998).

  26. 26.

    Correspondence concerning the Indian immigration to Mauritius in: British Parliamentary Papers, 1840 (331) 37, 1842 (26) 30, 184 (356 and 530) 35, 1846 (691 II) 38. Also TNA CO 167/245, Stanley, 26 July 1843.

  27. 27.

    Jonathan Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton, 1990): 210.

  28. 28.

    Adam McKeown, Melancholy Order: Asian Migration and the Nationalization of Borders (New York: NYU Press, 2007).

  29. 29.

    Gyan Prakash, Bonded histories: Genealogies of Labor Servitude in Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

  30. 30.

    Tirthankar Roy, “Sardars, Jobbers, Kanganies: The Labour Contractor and Indian Economic History”, Modern Asian Studies, 42, 5 (2008): 971–998.

  31. 31.

    British Library, India Office Records (BL IOR) Z/E/4/46/E202, “Emigration, Protection from abuse and fraud, 1842–5”; IOR/L/PJ/3/1088 No. 137, “Correspondence regarding Emigration from India to Mauritius, 1860–1”.

  32. 32.

    Carter, Servants, Sirdars: 104. Pooja Ramchurn-Jokhun, “Tribal Migration”, in Vijayalakshmi Teelock, Anwar Janoo, Geoffrey Summers, Marc Serge Rivière, and Sooryakanti Nirsimloo-Gayan, eds., Angajé: The Early Years: Explorations into the History, Society and Culture of Indentured Immigrants and Their Descendants in Mauritius (Port Louis: Aapravasi Ghat Trust Fund, 2012): 13–24.

  33. 33.

    Surendra Bhana, Indentured Indian Emigrants to Natal, 1860–1902. A Study Based on Ships’ Lists (New Delhi: Promilla, 1991).

  34. 34.

    Marina Carter, Servants, Sirdars, and Settlers: Indians in Mauritius, 1834–1874 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995).

  35. 35.

    Auguste Toussaint, Histoire de l’ile Maurice (Paris: PUF, 1974).

  36. 36.

    Colony of Mauritius, annual report, 1854, British Parliamentary Papers 1854, 52 (2050).

  37. 37.

    British Parliamentary Papers 1841 (45) 16 Petition of the inhabitants of Calcutta.

  38. 38.

    Carter, Servants, Sirdars, and Settlers: 3.

  39. 39.

    MNA B1B, First Immigration, Arrivals of Indian Immigrants.

  40. 40.

    Ramchurn-Jokhun, “Tribal Migration”.

  41. 41.

    Sooryakanti Nirsimloo-Gayan, “In Search of a Visible Past: Retracing Telugu Migration to Mauritius”, in Teelock and others, Angajé, vol. 1: 53–74.

  42. 42.

    Carter, Servants, Sirdars, table 3.6: 108.

  43. 43.

    Satteeanund Peerthum, “Le système d’apprentissage à Mauritius 1835–1839: plus esclave mais pas encore libre”, in Maestri, Esclavage: 285–94; Jocelyne Chan Low, “Aux origines du malaise créole? Les ex-apprentis dans la société mauricienne, 1839–1860”, in Maestri, Esclavage: 267–84.

  44. 44.

    Allen, Slaves.

  45. 45.

    MNA RA 1955, 2205.

  46. 46.

    MNA RA 862; HA 66.

  47. 47.

    British Parliamentary Papers, 1849 37 (280-II), Report of the Committee appointed to conduct and complete the census of the colony (25): 197.

  48. 48.

    MNA RA 1955, Planters’ Petitions, 2205, Immigration, Correspondence.

  49. 49.

    Centre National des Archives d’Outre-mer, Aix-en-Provence, (henceforth ANOM), Gen c149 d1248, Royal Commission, The treatment of immigrants in Mauritius, 1875.

  50. 50.

    Ibid.

  51. 51.

    ANOM Gen c149 d1248.

  52. 52.

    MNA, HA 66.

  53. 53.

    MNA, HA 66.

  54. 54.

    MNA RA 862, Immigration, Police.

  55. 55.

    Allen, Slaves: 72.

  56. 56.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, minute 6 Mars 1876.

  57. 57.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, minute 7 Mars 1877.

  58. 58.

    British Parliamentary Papers, 1901, 106 (cd 4984), 1914–16, 89 (cd 7786).

  59. 59.

    British Parliamentary Papers 1842, 30 (26).

  60. 60.

    MNA RA 1955, Immigration, Protectors of slaves, police; TNA (The National Archives, Kew), CO (Colonial Office) 167/263, Mauritius Island; British Parliamentary Papers, 1847 (325) 39.

  61. 61.

    TNA CO 167/213, 202, 266. Colony of Mauritius, annual reports, 1860–1890.

  62. 62.

    British Parliamentary Papers, 1875 (704) 34 and appendices A and B. Colony of Mauritius, 1860–1885.

  63. 63.

    ANOM FM/SG REU c380 d 3228.

  64. 64.

    British Parliamentary Papers, 1842 (26) 30.

  65. 65.

    ANOM FM/SG REU c380/d228; Gen c149 d1248; MNA RA 1955, 2205.

  66. 66.

    ANOM Gen c149 d1248.

  67. 67.

    ANOM FM/SG REU c380 d3228.

  68. 68.

    ANOM Gen c149 d1248.

  69. 69.

    ANOM Gen c149 d1248.

  70. 70.

    Richard Allen, “A Serious and Alarming Daily Evil: Marronage and its Legacy in Mauritius and the Plantation Colonial World”, Slavery and Abolition, 25, 2 (2004): 1–17 and, previous version: Outre-mers, Revue d’histoire, 89, 336–337 (2002): 131–152.

  71. 71.

    MNA RA 1955, Immigration, Police, 2205, Immigration; Colony of Mauritius, Protector of immigrants.

  72. 72.

    MNA RA 1023, Prisons and law, RA 1459, vagrancy.

  73. 73.

    MNA RA 1459.

  74. 74.

    ANOM Gen c149 d1248.

  75. 75.

    Colony of Mauritius, Annual Reports, 1860–9, in British Parliamentary Papers.

  76. 76.

    TNA CO 167/252; MNA H66, Planters’ petitions.

  77. 77.

    ANOM Gen c149 d1248.

  78. 78.

    ANOM Gen c149 d1248.

  79. 79.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU c380 d3228, minute 6.

  80. 80.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, minute 7.

  81. 81.

    Carter, Servants, Sirdars: 179.

  82. 82.

    ANOM FM/SG REU c380 d3228.

  83. 83.

    ANOM Gen c149 d1248

  84. 84.

    ANOM Gen c149 d1248.

  85. 85.

    ANOM Gen c149 d1248.

  86. 86.

    Ibid.

  87. 87.

    ANOM FM/SG Reu c 380 d 3228.

  88. 88.

    ANOM FM/SG REU c380 d3228.

  89. 89.

    British Parliamentary Papers, 1836 (166) 49; 1837–8 (180) 52; 1840 (58) 37; 1847–8 (250) 46; TNA CO 167/201.

  90. 90.

    Allen, Slaves: 72.

  91. 91.

    British Parliamentary Papers, 1837–8 (180) 52.

  92. 92.

    British Parliamentary Papers, 1837–8 (180) 52; 1849 (280) 37.

  93. 93.

    TNA CO 167/263; Labour Committee Evidence, Appendix A, October 22 1845, British Parliamentary Papers 1847 (325) 39.

  94. 94.

    TNA CO 167/213, 202, 266.

  95. 95.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, minute 6, March 1876.

  96. 96.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, minute 6, March 1876.

  97. 97.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, minute 7, March 1877.

  98. 98.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, minute 6, March 1876, p. 13.

  99. 99.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, minute 7, March 1877.

  100. 100.

    Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers: 179.

  101. 101.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, minute 6, March 1876.

  102. 102.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, minute 6, March 1876.

  103. 103.

    ANOM, FM/SG REU 380/3228, several minutes, 1877–1882.

  104. 104.

    British Parliamentary Papers 1901 (106): 78–81.

  105. 105.

    Allen, Slaves.

  106. 106.

    Colony of Mauritius, Blue Book for the Colony of Mauritius (Port Louis: Storekeeper General’s Printing Establishment, 1900–1908).

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        Alessandro Stanziani

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      Stanziani, A. (2018). Slavery, Abolition and the Contractarian Approach in the Indian Ocean: The Case of Mauritius. In: Labor on the Fringes of Empire. Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70392-3_4

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