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Becoming Benign Dictators: The Good Neighbor and Fascism, 1936–1939

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Abstract

While Ubico and Carías extended their terms in office, the military dictators of Europe were showing increasing signs of international aggression. Some U.S. diplomats became convinced that there was a connection between these developments and that the dictator-presidents of Central America were imitating the techniques of the fascist regimes. The U.S. press and Central American opposition groups fed these suspicions by portraying the Central American dictators as closet fascists. Chapter 5 shows how Ubico, Carías, and Martínez eventually turned the tables on their opponents and successfully portrayed themselves as bulwarks against the spread of fascism in their nations. The personal diplomacy of these presidents would form a basis for a close working relationship between the United States and the dictators of Central America during World War II.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Chap. 4, section “Constitutionalism in El Salvador”.

  2. 2.

    Benjamin L. Alpers, Dictators, Democracy, and American Public Culture: Envisioning the Totalitarian Enemy, 1920s–1950s (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 1–2.

  3. 3.

    Edward A. Purcell, The Crisis of Democratic Theory. Scientific Naturalism and the Problem of Value (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1973); Alpers, Dictators; David F. Schmitz, United States Foreign Policy toward Fascist Italy, 1920–1940 (PhD Thesis: New Brunswick, 1985).

  4. 4.

    For example: Dunkerley, The Long War, 33. Also see n. 27–35 below.

  5. 5.

    Grieb, Guatemalan Caudillo, 248–251. See below for further discussion.

  6. 6.

    At the time, U.S. legations in Central America and Mexico kept each other and the Department informed about important activities of exiled oppositionists. For example: Harold A. Collins (U.S. Chargé d’Affaires a.i. to Costa Rica) to Department, February 5, 1937, PRHO, box 23, class 800. For historians, another source on the activity of these exiled communities, as well as collaboration between the caudillos to keep an eye on them, would be the published records of Carías’s secret police: Inestroza, Documentos Clasificados, especially Chap. 2.

  7. 7.

    Erwin to Department, August 19, 1941, PRHO, box 68, class 800.B; Cramp to Department, August 9, 1937, PRHO, box 23, class 800.

  8. 8.

    Argueta, Carías, 295–299.

  9. 9.

    El Comité Central del Partido Liberal Hondureño to Erwin, July 4, 1938 enclosed in: Erwin to Department, July 12, 1938, PRHO, box 35, class 800; Venancio Callejas to Franklin D. Roosevelt, November 30, 1936 enclosed in Callejas to Keena, December 11, 1936, PRHO, box 8, volume IX, class 800; Kenneth J. Grieb, “The Myth of a Central American Dictator’s League”, Journal of Latin American Studies 10:2 (November, 1978), 329–345.

  10. 10.

    Grieb, “The Myth”, 329 and 330.

  11. 11.

    Ibid.

  12. 12.

    “A Dictatorship Belt”, NYT (September 5, 1937), 98; “Dictators Agree in Latin America”, NYT (July 20, 1937), 18; “Salvador Extends President’s Term 6 Years”, NYT (January, 1939), 1; “Pact Stirs Central America”, NYT (November 14, 1937), 68. The articles of July 20 and November 14 are also mentioned in Grieb, “The Myth”. Reiner Pommerin, Das Dritte Reich und Lateinamerika. Die Deutsche Politik gegenüber Süd- und Mittelamerika, 1939–1942 (PhD Thesis: Düsseldorf: Droste, 1977), 27–33 shows that Germany had little interest to expand the anti-Comintern Pact to Latin America. Neither were Latin American States much interested to join the alliance.

  13. 13.

    Des Portes to Department, June 9, 1937, National Archives Microfilm Publication, M1280, roll 4, Jorge Ubico: 652–658; Des Portes to Department, August 30, 1937, M1289, roll 2, Political Affairs: 1308; Des Portes to Welles, July 17, 1937, National Archives of the United States at College Park, MD, Record Group 84: Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State, Legation in Guatemala [PRGU], Confidential Files [CF], box 9, file marked “Des Portes”; Des Portes to Welles, August 6, 1937, PRGU, CF, box 9, file marked “Des Portes”.

  14. 14.

    Unknown author to Des Portes, Memorandum on present conditions in Guatemala, April 24, 1937, PRGU, CF, box 1, class 800.

  15. 15.

    Des Portes to Department, February 2, 1937, PRGU, CF, box 1, class 800.

  16. 16.

    Welles to the U.S. Embassies and Legations in Latin America, March 7, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 820.02; Des Portes to Department, June 9, 1937, M1280, roll 4, Jorge Ubico: 652–658.

  17. 17.

    Keena to Department, November 13, 1936, PRHO, box 8, class 800.

  18. 18.

    According to Adam Fenner, Carías instigated the boundary dispute “to inspire Honduras nationalism, improve employment opportunities for Hondurans, and rally the domestic opposition to his side.” In the meantime, he “successfully completed an elaborate ruse to make Washington believe that he desired a swift resolution” of the dispute. Adam Fenner, “Puppet Dictator in the Banana Republic? Re-examining Honduran-American Relations in the Era of Tiburcio Carías Andino, 1933–1938”, Diplomacy and Statecraft 25:4 (2014), 613–629, there 620. Considering the criticism from the legation, Carías’s ruse was perhaps not that effective initially, but he would ultimately establish a very satisfactory relation with Erwin. I would suggest that U.S. appreciation for Carías’s government as a dictatorial government came much later than Fenner suggests and the president’s manipulation of the fear for fascism was an important cause for that outcome. However, Fenner’s argument that this appreciation was “purposefully earned, not inadvertently won” (618) definitely holds true.

  19. 19.

    Cramp to Department, August 17, 1938, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1938, class 800. Also see Cramp to Department, September 2, 1938, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1938, class 800.

  20. 20.

    Cramp to Department, August 17, 1938, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1938, class 800. The Department initially responded positively to this analysis by Cramp, noting that it would be “of assistance to the Department in evaluating the future political developments in Honduras.” Adolf A. Berle (Acting Secretary of State) to Cramp, September 17, 1938, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1938, class 800.

  21. 21.

    Erwin to Department, November 12, 1938, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1938, class 800; Erwin to Department, November 15, 1938, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1938, class 800; Erwin to Department, December 14, 1938, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1938, class 800; Erwin to Department, December 2, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1939/I, class 500; Unknown author, Memorandum of Conversation with Don Fernando Lardizibal at the American Legation, November 24, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1939/I, class 500; Erwin to Department, May 20, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 1939/II, class 800; Erwin to Department, June 2, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 1939/II, class 800; Erwin to Department, December 7, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 1939/II, class 800.

  22. 22.

    Erwin to Department, December 18, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 1939/II, class 800.

  23. 23.

    Des Portes to Department, despatch 371, August 30, 1937, M1289, roll 2, Political Affairs: 1308; Duggan to Welles, March 9, 1937, Lot Files, Records of the Office of American Republic Affairs, its predecessors, and its successors [ARA], entry 211: Memorandums Relating to General Latin American Affairs, January 4, 1937 to December 31, 1947 [entry 211], box 2, folder marked January to June 1937; “Salvadorean” to Walter W. Hoffman (U.S. Chargé d’Affaires a.i. to El Salvador), September 17, 1938, PRES, box 13, volume VI, class 800; Rafael Menendez et al. to Frazer, January 6, 1939, PRES, box 21, volume VII, class 800.

  24. 24.

    H.H.S. Birch (British Minister to Guatemala) to Des Portes, August 18, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 800; Des Portes to Department, August 19, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 800; Lt. Col. J.B. Pate (U.S. Military Attaché to Guatemala) to the Secretary of War, March 7, 1938, PRES, box 14, volume VII, class 820.02; Pate to the Secretary of War, March 11, 1938, PRES, box 14, volume VII, class 820.02; Pate to the Secretary of War, March 11, 1938, PRES, box 14, volume VII, class 820.02; Capt. F.M. Lamson-Scribner (U.S. Naval Attaché to Guatemala) to Frazer, January 13, 1938, PRES, CF, box 1; Lamson-Scribner to Frazer, January 20, 1938, PRES CF, box 1.

  25. 25.

    Hoffman to Department, August 24, 1938, PRES, box 13, volume VI, class 800; Frazer to Department, February 24, 1939, PRES, box 21, volume VII, class 800. However, also note: Hoffman to Department, October 15, 1937, PRES, box 9, volume V, class 700; Frazer to Department, February 9, 1938, PRES, box 13, volume VI, class 800.

  26. 26.

    Duggan to Welles, March 9, 1937, Lot Files, ARA, entry 211, box 2, folder marked January to June 1937.

  27. 27.

    On the Central American military, the glorification of violence, and rejection of politics, consult: Susy Sanchez, “El Golpe de Estado Somocista de 1936: Un Espectáculo Político de Exaltación a la Violencia”, Boletín de la Asociación para el Fomento de los Estudios Históricos en Centroamérica 49 (April 4, 2009); Robert H. Holden, Armies without Nations: Public Violence and State Formation in Central America, 1821–1960 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 50–95; Elam, “The Army and Politics in El Salvador, 1840–1927”, in Brian Loveman and Thomas M. Davies, Jr. eds., The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America (updated and revised: Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1997), 52–57. On corporatism in the political ideology of the Carías regime, consult: Dodd, Carías, 85–86 and 111–112. On the centrality of racism in Guatemala’s political culture, consult: Casaús Arzú, Linaje y Racismo.

  28. 28.

    Pommerin, Das Dritte Reich; Pommerin, “Das nationalsozialistische Deutschland und Lateinamerika, 1933–1945”, in Karl Kohut, Dietrich Briesemeister, Gustav Siebenmann eds., Deutsche in Lateinamerika—Lateinamerika in Deutschland (Frankfurt am Main: Vervuert, 1996), 398–406; Günter Kahle, “Deutsche Landsknechte, Legionäre und Militärinstrukteure in Lateinamerika”, in Kohut, Deutsche in Lateinamerika, 35–47; Thomas M. Leonard and John F. Bratzel, Latin America during World War II (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007); Friedman, Nazis and Good Neighbors.

  29. 29.

    Leonard and Bratzel, Latin America, 9; “Guatemala”, in Booth, Wade, and Walker eds., Understanding Central America, 115–116; Lindo-Fuentes et al., Remembering, 82–86; Parkman, Nonviolent Insurrection, 28; Elam, “El Salvador, 1840–1927”, 57; Dunkerley, The Long War, 33.

  30. 30.

    Leonard, Search for Stability, 109–110.

  31. 31.

    Dodd, Carías, 85–86 and 111–112.

  32. 32.

    Grieb, Guatemalan Caudillo, 248–249.

  33. 33.

    Ibid., 250–251.

  34. 34.

    Ibid.

  35. 35.

    Ibid., 71.

  36. 36.

    Des Portes to Department, September 29, 1937, PRGU, box 11, class 710; Des Portes, Memorandum for the files, November 1937, PRGU, CF, box 1, class 820.02; Des Portes to Department, September 29, 1937, PRGU, box 11, class 710.

  37. 37.

    McKinney to Department, January 25, 1938, PRGU, box 17, class 800.1.

  38. 38.

    Des Portes to Department, despatch 512, February 23, 1938, M1280, roll 4, Jorge Ubico: 87.

  39. 39.

    Grieb, Guatemalan Caudillo, 35. Ubico’s relation with the Indian population was in fact much different from the situation described by Des Portes. Consult: Richard N. Adams, “Ethnic Images and Strategies in 1944”, in Carol A. Smith ed., Guatemalan Indians and the State: 1540 to 1988 (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1990), 141–162, there 141–142; McCreery, Rural Guatemala, 312–322; Casaús Arzú, Linaje y Racismo, especially 133–135.

  40. 40.

    This information comes from letters of Des Portes to his cousin, on his mother’s side, Bernard Baruch and quoted in Margaret L. Coit, Mr. Baruch (Reprint: Washington, DC, 2000), 400.

  41. 41.

    Des Portes to Department, despatch 512, February 23, 1938, M1280, roll 4, Jorge Ubico: 87; Gerald Drew (Division of American Republic Affairs) to Duggan, untitled memorandum, March 3, 1938, M1280, roll 4, Jorge Ubico: 87.

  42. 42.

    As an illustrative sample, consult: Des Portes, Memorandum of Conversation with Ubico, June 15, 1938, PRGU, box 23, class 800; Des Portes, Memorandum of Conversation with Ubico, February 27, 1939, PRGU, box 23, class 800.1; Des Portes, Memorandum of Conversation with Ubico, June 15, 1939, PRGU, box 23, class 800.1; Des Portes to Department, June 15, 1937, PRGU, CF, box 1, class 710; Des Portes to Department, October 28, 1937, PRGU, CF, box 1, class 800; McKinney, Memorandum of Conversation with Ubico, December 6, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 820.02; Des Portes, Memorandum of Conversation with President Ubico, September 23, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 820.02; McKinney, Memorandum of Conversation with President Ubico, December 6, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 820.02.

  43. 43.

    Des Portes to Department, May 15, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 800.C.

  44. 44.

    A representative sampling of such instructions: Frazer to Erwin, February 5, 1938, PRHO, box 36, class 820; Welles to the U.S. Embassies and Legations in Latin America, May 7, 1938, PRHO, box 36, class 820; Hull to the U.S. Embassies and Legations in Latin America, June 27, 1939, PRHO, box 49, class 824; Welles to Certain American Diplomatic and Consular Officers in Latin America, July 5, 1938, PRHO, CF, box 1, class 800; Berle to the U.S. Embassies and Legations in Latin America, September 20, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1, class 121; Berle to Albert H. Cousins, Jr. (U.S. secretary of legation in Honduras), October 21, 1940, PRHO, box 58, class 820.02.

  45. 45.

    Gilderhus, Second Century, 91–96.

  46. 46.

    Des Portes to Department, May 15, 1940, PRGU, CF, box 3, class 711.

  47. 47.

    Des Portes to Department, September 24, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 800; McKinney, Memorandum of Conversation with President Ubico, December 6, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 820.02; Des Portes, Memorandum of Conversation with President Ubico, September 23, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 820.02.

  48. 48.

    Des Portes to Department, September 24, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 800; Des Portes to Department, December 13, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 800.B; McKinney to Department, December 13, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 820.02.

  49. 49.

    John M. Cabot (U.S. secretary of legation in Guatemala), Memorandum of Conversation with Ubico, February 5, 1940, PRGU, box 29, class 800.1; Des Portes, Memorandum of Conversation with Ubico, June 21, 1940, PRGU, CF, box 3, class 711; Hartwell Johnson (U.S. secretary of legation in Guatemala), Memorandum of Conversation with Ubico, August 14, 1941, PRGU, CF, box 4, class 800.1.

  50. 50.

    McKinney to Department, June 14, 1938, M1280, roll 2, Political Affairs: 1321; McKinney to Department, December 13, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 820.02.

  51. 51.

    Des Portes to Duggan, July 28, 1938, PRGU, CF, box 2, class 800.

  52. 52.

    Erwin to Department, March 29, 1938, PRHO, box 35, class 800; Erwin to Department, March 30, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711; Erwin to Department, November 16, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Hull to the U.S. Legations in Central America, December 15, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Erwin to Department, December 16, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Erwin to Department, December 21, 1937, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Welles to Erwin, December 22, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Erwin to Department, December 30, 1939, PRHO, box 47, class 711.1; Erwin to Department, January, 29, 1940, PRHO, box 57, class 711.1.

  53. 53.

    Erwin to Department, June 21, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 1939/II, class 800; Hull to the U.S. Legations in Central America, May 13, 1940, PRHO, box 57, class 711.1; Erwin to Department, November 16, 1938, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1938, class 800; Fred K. Salter (U.S. secretary of legation in Honduras) to Department, October 3, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 1939/I, class 800.

  54. 54.

    While it doesn’t deal with the war years, Fenner, “Puppet Dictator”, suggests that Carías had used such tactics to influence the perceptions of Hondurans and U.S. observers during the 1930s.

  55. 55.

    Erwin to Department, December 21, 1939, PRHO, box 47, volume VII, class 711.1; Salter, untitled memorandum, March 28, 1938, PRHO, box 35, volume VI, class 800; Erwin to Department, December 6, 1938, box 36, volume VII, class 801; Erwin to Department, December 26, 1939, PRHO, box 47, volume VII, class 711.1.

  56. 56.

    Erwin to Department, December 27, 1940, PRHO, box 57, class 800.1.

  57. 57.

    On Honduran war measures: Erwin to Department, June 21, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 1939/I, class 800; Erwin to Department, June 24, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 1939/I, class 800; Erwin to Department, May 21, 1940, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 3, class 820.02; Hull to the U.S. Legations and Embassies in Latin America, June 3, 1940, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1, class 711; Erwin, Memorandum of Conversation at the Presidential Palace, June 14, 1940, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1, class 711; Unknown author, Memorandum of Staff Conversations between Representatives of the Government of Honduras and the Military and Naval Services of the United States, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1, class 711; Erwin to Department, July 1, 1940, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 3, class 820.02. On the legation’s perception of El Cronista: Salter to Department, October 3, 1939, PRHO, CF, box 2, class 891.

  58. 58.

    See Chap. 6, section “The Sixth Column”.

  59. 59.

    Albert H. Cousins, Jr. (U.S. secretary of legation in Honduras) to Department, March 11, 1941, PRHO, CF, box 3, volume 1, class 800. Many files in that same folder deal with the supposed connection between the Honduran Liberal Party and German agents. Also see: Erwin to Department, May 31, 1940, PRHO, CF, box 2, volume 2, class 820.02; RDG, Memorandum, October 21, 1940, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1, class 800; Erwin to Department, October 22, 1940, PRHO, CF, box 1, volume 1, class 800. Argueta confirms that Carías justified his suppressive measures by presenting them as measures against totalitarian subversion: Mario Argueta, La Gran Huelga Bananera. 69 Días que Conmovieron a Honduras (Tegucigalpa, 1995), 13. At the same time, the published records of Carías’s secret police contain no information which suggests that the regime was actually concerned about the link between oppositionists and Nazi or fascist agents: Inestroza, Documentos Clasificados.

  60. 60.

    Cousins to Department, March 11, 1941, PRHO, CF, box 3, volume 1, class 800.

  61. 61.

    Corrigan to Department, October 18, 1935, PRES, volume 136, class 800; Corrigan to Department, August 26, 1936, PRES, box 4, volume 5, 800; Corrigan to Department, September 5, 1936, PRES, box 4, volume 5, 800.

  62. 62.

    Meredith Nicholson (U.S. Minister to Nicaragua) to Hoffman, May 5, 1939, PRES, box 17, volume II, class 123; Frazer to Department, August 7, 1939, PRES, box 17, volume II, class 123; Frazer to Maximiliano H. Martínez (President of El Salvador), April 26, 1939, PRES, box 17, volume II, class 123; Frazer to Department, April, 26, 1939, PRES, box 17, volume II, class 123.

  63. 63.

    Frazer to Department, February 9, 1938, PRES, box 13, volume VI, class 800; Frazer to Department, September 6, 1939, PRES, box 20, volume VI, class 711.

  64. 64.

    Welles to the U.S. Legations and Embassies in Latin America, October 21, 1938, PRHO, box 36, class 820. Emphasis added.

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van den Berk, J. (2018). Becoming Benign Dictators: The Good Neighbor and Fascism, 1936–1939. In: Becoming a Good Neighbor among Dictators. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69986-8_5

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