Abstract
This chapter explores young women’s transition to adulthood in select regions of China and Europe from the mid-seventeenth through to the mid-nineteenth century and concentrates, in particular, on young women’s household and non-household labour (especially in the production of thread and cloth) as they move through the life-cycle transition from daughters to wives and from a natal to a marital household. The time frame of the chapter encompasses periods of important commercial and technological developments in textile production and marketing in both Europe and China and allows us to focus on an underexplored dimension of parallels and divergences—namely, family, gender, and generational relations. We also compare the apparently different relationships to labour and commodity markets experienced by young women in the two regions.
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Notes
- 1.
Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton University Press, 2000).
- 2.
See, for example, Olwen Hufton, The Prospect before Her: A History of Women in Western Europe 1500–1800 (New York: Vintage, 1998); Jack Goldstone, ‘Gender, Work, and Culture: Why the Industrial Revolution Came Early to England but Late to China’, Sociological Perspectives, 39, no. 1 (1996), 1–21; Marion W. Gray, Productive Men, Reproductive Women: The Agrarian Household and the Emergence of Separate Spheres During the German Enlightenment (New York, Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2000); Mary Jo Maynes and Ann Waltner, ‘Women’s Life-Cycle Transitions in World-Historical Perspective: Comparing Marriage in China and Europe’, Journal of Women’s History, 12, no. 4 (2001), 11–21; Mary S. Hartman, The Household and the Making of History: A Subversive View of the Western Past (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Susan Mann, ‘Grooming a Daughter for Marriage’ in Patricia Ebrey and Rubie Watson (eds), Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 203–30; Susan Mann, Precious Records: Women in China’s Long Eighteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
- 3.
The classic article pointing out the Western European marriage pattern is John Hajnal, ‘European Marriage Patterns in Perspective’ in D. V. Glass and D. E. C. Eversly (eds), Population in History: Essays in Historical Demography (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 1965), 101–140. This article generated a debate among Europeanists that is still ongoing. More recently, Kenneth Pomeranz has argued that, despite this difference, in terms of several key demographic variables, the European pattern does not differ markedly from China, Japan, or Southeast Asia. See Pomeranz, The Great Divergence, 11. See also James Lee and Feng Wang, One Quarter of Humanity: Malthusian Mythology and Chinese Realities (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1999) and Theo Engelen and A. P. Wolf (eds), Marriage and the Family in Eurasia. Perspectives on the Hajnal Hypothesis (Amsterdam, Piscataway, New Jersey: Aksant Academic Publishers, 2005).
- 4.
Lee and Wang, One Quarter of Humanity, 65.
- 5.
Ibid., 65.
- 6.
For a discussion of servants, see Mann, Precious Records, 38–44. For a discussion of women and work, see ibid., 143–77. See also Maria Jaschok, Women and Chinese Patriarchy: Submission, Servitude and Escape (Hong Kong University Press, 1994) for more recent times.
- 7.
See, for example, Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi (eds), The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 1200–1850 (Oxford University Press, 2009); Bozhong Li, Agricultural Development in Jiangnan, 1620–1850 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998); Kenneth Pomeranz, ‘Women’s Work and the Politics of Respectability’ in Bryna Goodman and Wendy Larson (eds), Gender in Motion: Divisions of Labor and Cultural Change in Late Imperial and Modern China (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005).
- 8.
For recent work making these connections, see Jonathan Eacott, Selling Empire: India in the Making of Britain and America, 1600–1830 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2016); Anka Steffen, ‘Silesians and Slaves: How Linen Textiles Connected East-Central Europe, Africa and the Americas’, presented at the conference ‘Dressing Global Bodies,’ Alberta, Canada, 7 July 2016; Xiaolin Duan, ‘Fashion, State, and Social Change: Chinese and Mexican Silk in Early Modern Manila Trade’, paper presented at the meeting of the American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies, Minneapolis, 30 March 2017.
- 9.
Key works on European protoindustrialization include Karl Ditt and Sidney Pollard (eds), Von der Heimarbeit in die Fabrik. Industrialisierung Und Arbeiterschaft in Leinen- Und Baumwollregionen Westeuropas Während des 18. Und 19. Jahrhunderts (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1992); Sheilagh C. Ogilvie, State Corporatism and Proto-Industry: the Württemberg Black Forest, 1580–1797 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Hans Medick, Weben Und Überleben in Laichingen. Lokalgeschichte Als Allgemeine Geschichte (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996).
- 10.
Ogilvie, State Corporatism and Proto-Industry. For the Irish comparison, see Jane Gray, Spinning the Threads of Uneven Development. Gender and Industrialization in Ireland during the Long Eighteenth Century (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2005).
- 11.
François-Félix de La Farelle, Études Économiques Sur L’industrie de La Soie Dans Le Midi de La France (Paris: Guillaumin, 1852), première étude, 4–5.
- 12.
For an important analysis of these arguments, see Beverly Lemire, Fashion’s Favorites: The Cotton Trade and the Consumer in Britain, 1660–1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi (eds), The Spinning World; and Maxine Berg, ‘In Pursuit of Luxury: Global History and British Consumer Goods in the Eighteenth Century’, Past & Present, 182 (2004), 85–142. See also Eacott, Selling Empire, and Robert S. DuPlessis, The Material Atlantic: Clothing, Commerce, and Colonization in the Atlantic World, 1650–1800 (Cambridge University Press, 2016).
- 13.
See Jean H. Quataert, ‘The Shaping of Women’s Work in Manufacturing: Guilds, Households, and the State in Central Europe, 1648–1870’, American Historical Review, 90, no. 5 (1985), 1122–48. See also: Steffen, ‘Silesians and Slaves’.
- 14.
Sheilagh C. Ogilvie, A Bitter Living: Women, Markets, and Social Capital in Early Modern Germany (Oxford University Press, 2003).
- 15.
La Farelle, Études Économiques, première etude, 2.
- 16.
Archives Départementales de Vaucluse, Série E, Etat Civil.
- 17.
Ogilvie, A Bitter Living, 116ff.
- 18.
Ulrich Pfister, ‘Work Roles and Family Structure in Proto-Industrial Zurich’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 20, no. 1 (1989), 83–105.
- 19.
Liang Chu-bin, ‘Mingdai nügong yu beifang funü wei zhongxin shi tan tao’ (unpublished PhD dissertation, National Central University, Zhongli, Taiwan, 2001), 41. For a discussion of nügong, see, among others, Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 237–272. For a description of the Gujin tushu jicheng, see Endymion Wilkinson, Chinese History: A New Manual, Fourth Edition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2015).
- 20.
Cited in Bray, Technology and Gender, 223. See also the statement by Zhang Han (late sixteenth century) quoted by Jonathan Hay, Sensuous Surfaces: The Decorative Object in Early Modern China (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2010), 44 and by Tang Zhen (seventeenth century), cited by Mann, Precious Records, 153.
- 21.
Bozhong Li, Agricultural Development, 109.
- 22.
For a discussion of Chinese silk exports to Mexico, see Duan, ‘Fashion, State and Social Change’, 18–27.
- 23.
Bozhong Li, Agricultural Development, 107. During the Qing dynasty, a picul (dan) was about 50 kilograms.
- 24.
Harriet T. Zurndorfer, ‘Cotton Textile Manufacture and Marketing in Late Imperial China and the “Great Divergence”’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 54 (2011), 710.
- 25.
Masatoshi Tanaka, ‘The Putting-out System of Production in the Ming and Qing Periods: With a Focus on Clothing Production, Part 1’, Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko, 52 (1994), 27–28.
- 26.
Ibid., 52, 26.
- 27.
Pomeranz, ‘Women’s Work and the Politics of Respectability’, 249; Laurel Bossen and Hill Gates, Bound Feet, Young Hands: Tracking the Demise of Footbinding in Village China (Stanford University Press, 2017). Pomeranz claims that there was very little cotton yarn on the market in ‘Women’s Work’, 247.
- 28.
Liang, ‘Exploration of Women’s Work’, 68; Ping-chen Hsiung, Tender Voyage: Children and Childhood in Late Imperial China (Stanford University Press, 2005), 201.
- 29.
Lan Dingyan, ‘Nûxue’, cited and discussed in Liang, ‘Exploration of Women’s Work’, 68.
- 30.
Bozhong Li, ‘“Cong fufu bing zuo” dao “nan geng nu zhi”’, Zhonguo jingjushi yanjiu, 3 (1996), 105–7.
- 31.
Bozhong Li, ‘Involution and Chinese Cotton Textile Production: Songjiang in the Late-Eighteenth and Early-Nineteenth Centuries’ in Riello and Parthasarathi, The Spinning World, 390. A child in Qing China was one sui at birth; at the next New Year, the child would become two sui. Thus a child born right before the New Year would be two sui after the New Year but only weeks or months old by western calculations.
- 32.
Zurndorfer, ‘The Resistant Fibre: Cotton Textiles in Imperial China’; Tanaka, ‘The Putting-out System’, 53:42.
- 33.
Paolo Santangelo, ‘Urban Society in Late Imperial Suzhou’ in Linda Cooke Johnson (ed.), Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), 108.
- 34.
See the illustrations in Dieter Kuhn, Science and Civilization in China, vol. 5, pt. 9, Textile Technology: Spinning and Reeling (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 294–300. Kuhn does not discuss the gender of the harvesters, but it is clear from the illustrations in agricultural handbooks that both men and women were collecting the leaves. See also Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender, 248.
- 35.
Lillian Li, China’s Silk Trade, Traditional Industry in the Modern World, 1842–1937 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 19.
- 36.
Kuhn, Science and Civilization, 301–307.
- 37.
Bray, Technology and Gender, 235.
- 38.
Bozhong Li, Agricutural Development, 92. See also the discussion in Lillian Li, China’s Silk Trade, 33.
- 39.
Maxine Berg, ‘What Difference Did Women’s Work Make to the Industrial Revolution?’ in Pamela Sharpe (ed.), Women’s Work: The English Experience, 1650–1914 (London: Arnold, 1998), 161.
- 40.
Württemberg Staatsarchiv Series E 14/Bü 1170, Report to the King by the Ministerium des Innern und der Finanzen concerning the various offers to produce ‘Flachsspinnmaschinen’. Stuttgart 5/19 April 1819, 4.
- 41.
Deborah Simonton, A History of European Women’s Work (London: Routledge, 1998), 139.
- 42.
Brenda Collins, ‘The Loom, the Land, and the Marketplace: Women Weavers and the Family Economy in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-century Ireland’ in Marilyn Cohen (ed.), The Warp of Ulster’s Past (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 229–52. Whereas prior to 1800, most weavers were male, after the Famine years (1845–1847), more women and girls began weaving at home.
- 43.
Gray, Spinning the Threads of Uneven Development and Betty Messenger, Picking Up the Linen Threads: A Study in Industrial Folklore (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1978).
- 44.
Andrew Gray, A Treatise on Spinning Machinery with Plans of Different Machines Made Use of in That Art from the Spindle and Distaff of the Ancients to the Machines Which Have Been Invented or Improved by the Moderns. With Some Preliminary Observations, Tending to Shew That Arts of Spinning, Weaving and Sewing, Were Invented by the Ingenuity of Females. And a Postscript Including an Interesting Account of the Mode of Spinning Yarn in Ireland. (Edinburgh: A. Constable & Company, 1819), Postscript, 18–19.
- 45.
Messenger, Picking Up the Linen Threads, 20–23.
- 46.
Tom Hunt, Portrait of an Industrial Village and Its Cotton Industry (Dublin and Portland: Irish Academic Press, 2000), 59–61.
- 47.
Quoted in ibid., 64.
- 48.
La Farelle, Études Économiques, seconde étude, 2–3.
- 49.
Ibid., 15–18.
- 50.
See Medick, Weben Und Überleben in Laichingen.
- 51.
See Mary Jo Maynes, ‘Arachne’s Daughters: European Girls’ Labor in the International Textile Industry, 1750–1880’ in Mary Jo Maynes, B. Søland, and C. Benninghaus (eds), Secret Gardens, Satanic Mills: Placing Girls in European History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 38–53.
- 52.
Xinwu Xu and Byung-Kun Min, ‘The Struggle of the Handicraft Cotton Industry against Machine Textiles in China’, Modern China 14:1 (1988), 43.
- 53.
Ibid., 39.
- 54.
Robert Cliver, ‘China’ in Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk (ed.), The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000 (Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2014), 120.
- 55.
Emily Honig, ‘The Contract Labor System and Women Workers: Pre-Liberation Cotton Mills of Shanghai’, Modern China, 9, no. 4 (1983), 421–54.
- 56.
Debin Ma, ‘Between Cottage and Factory: The Evolution of Chinese and Japanese Silk-Reeling Industries in the Latter Half of the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 10, no. 2 (2005), 204–05.
- 57.
Lillian Li, China’s Silk Trade, Traditional Industry in the Modern World, 1842–1937 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 29.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Cited in Zurndorfer, ‘The Resistant Fibre’, 57.
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Waltner, A., Maynes, M.J. (2018). Young Women, Textile Labour, and Marriage in Europe and China around 1800. In: O'Dowd, M., Purvis, J. (eds) A History of the Girl. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69278-4_5
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