Abstract
Cities stand out as the main destination of processed and consumed resources coming from all over the world. The urban metabolism approach warns us against the prevailing linear processes that move from production to consumption generating huge amounts of waste , which are not reintegrated back into the system. A transition towards a circular urban metabolism is a fundamental issue. In the case of the food system, the goal of returning organic matter and nutrients to the soil and closing nutrient cycles poses an important societal challenge. Considering that our food system is globalised, means with which to find feasible ways of closing nutrient cycles at the local level are not evident. This chapter explores the potential of addressing simultaneously the issues of food production and organic waste and their re-connection, so that the transition to a more re-localised urban food system is complemented by a revisited model of local organic waste management . We present an empirical case study of the city of Madrid (Spain) , an experience that reintegrates organic waste into regional Alternative Food Networks. It was initiated as a bottom up approach by the civic platform Madrid Agroecologico, which demanded new public policies and the definition of a sustainable urban food strategy. Local farmers became responsible for composting organic waste from selected schools, residential areas and municipal markets within a pilot project called Madrid Agrocomposta, financed by the local municipality. The project was instrumental in raising awareness of the issue concerning waste and its potential re-use as compost to amend soils. We also explore the potential and the implications for public policies to accommodate a fundamental shift towards recycling organic solid waste into compost for urban agriculture or green areas. The analysis of the material and physical factors from the perspective of metabolism flows is applied to identifying ways to close the nutrient cycles by community composting inside the city or in peri-urban farms and distributed small scale waste processing plants. They would result in the integration of different waste management systems and introducing new players into a sector dominated by large companies, willing to retain a tight control of the urban waste management business.
If it were practicable to collect, with the least loss, all the solid and fluid excrements of the inhabitants of the town, and return to each farmer the portion arising from produce originally supplied by him to the town, the productiveness of the land might be maintained almost unimpaired for ages to come, and the existing store of mineral elements in every fertile field would be amply sufficient for the wants of increasing populations.
(Von Liebeg, founder of artificial fertilisers, 1863).
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Notes
- 1.
With exceptions like aquaponics, which in global terms have a relatively minor role in food provision, that do not require soil to grow plants.
- 2.
The Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC sets the basic concepts and definitions related to waste management, such as definitions of waste, recycling, recovery. It explains when waste ceases to be waste and becomes a secondary raw material (so called end-of-waste criteria), and how to distinguish between waste and by-products. The Directive lays down some basic waste management principles: it requires that waste be managed without endangering human health and harming the environment, and in particular without risk to water, air, soil, plants or animals, without causing a nuisance through noise or odours, and without adversely affecting the countryside or places of special interest. Waste legislation and policy of the EU Member States shall apply as a priority order the following waste management hierarchy: prevention, preparation for re-use, recycling, recovery and finally, disposal.
- 3.
Source of data are those listed in Table 11.1.
- 4.
Imports refer to goods obtained from other Spanish regions as well as from outside the country.
- 5.
Source of data: Area of statistic information. Municipality of Madrid. http://www.madrid.es.
- 6.
Source of data: EUROSTAT http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Municipal_waste_statistics (retrieved 10. 07. 2016).
- 7.
Madrid Agroecologico: http://madridagroecologico.org/.
- 8.
The Pact is an international protocol, engaging the cities for the development of food systems, based on the principles of sustainability and social justice, which has been ratified by 130 cities from all over the world ( http://www.milanurbanfoodpolicypact.org/).
- 9.
FCC, Ferrovial, Urbaser, OHL, Sacyr, Ascan and Acciona.
- 10.
Calculations: 3 tons/ha for 69,000 ha rainfed crops, 20 tons/ha for 19,000 ha of irrigated crops, 4 tons/ha for 37,000 ha of rainfed olive groves and vineyards and 15 tons/ha for 1.200 ha of irrigated olive groves and vineyards.
- 11.
The volume of food distributed through Mercamadrid could feed roughly 7 million inhabitants, therefore the food discarded would be less than the 3% of the total, which is a very conservative estimate.
- 12.
It has to be noted that in Spain, 80% of anaerobically digested sewage sludge is used as an agricultural fertiliser (Source: Registro Nacional de Lodos. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente), which poses a problem because of the presence of heavy metals, hormones, pharmaceutical residues and other pathogens. A stricter regulation of chemicals and heavy metals in the environment should be a priority.
- 13.
- 14.
Population in Madrid’s districts range from 45,000 to 240,000 inhabitants, on average a district has 150,000 inhabitants.
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Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Franco Llobera, from Madrid Agroecologico, who inspired the project Madrid Agrocomposta and directed our attention to more sustainable urban waste management systems; and Pedro Almoguera, master of bio-intensive agriculture who invites us to introduce a social justice perspective (whose soil are we eating?) when thinking on closing nutrient and material loops. The author from the Institute of Geonics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, would like to thank for support of the presented chapter by the long-term conceptual development of research organisation, RVO: 68145535.
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Simon-Rojo, M., Duží, B. (2017). Connecting Local Food and Organic Waste Management Systems: Closing Nutrient Loops in the City of Madrid. In: Fraňková, E., Haas, W., Singh, S. (eds) Socio-Metabolic Perspectives on the Sustainability of Local Food Systems. Human-Environment Interactions, vol 7. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69236-4_11
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