Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Iron Formations of Southern Africa

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Geology of Southwest Gondwana

Part of the book series: Regional Geology Reviews ((RGR))

Abstract

Iron formations (IFs) are Fe-rich chemical sedimentary rocks that show a unique distribution through Precambrian time, with abundant deposition from approximately 3.8 Ga, reaching a volumetric peak at 2.5 Ga, disappearing at 1.8 Ga and returning at 0.8 to 0.6 Ga. They are important paleoenvironmental proxies, recording possible ancient marine water signatures. IFs also host the largest Fe ore deposits in the world. IFs can be classified based on three criteria: Texture; Mineralogy; and Stratigraphic setting. The geological record of Southern Africa contains examples of all IF types as based on all three classification criteria that also span most of the geological time periods that mark abundant IF deposition. Meso- to Neoarchean greenstone belt-hosted (Algoma-type) IFs occur within the majority of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons’ greenstone belts. Some of the world’s oldest Superior-type IFs, which occur within marine successions that mark stable shelf depositional settings, occur within the Mesoarchean Witwatersrand and Pongola Supergroups on the Kaapvaal Craton. The volumetric bulk of the IFs in Southern Africa occur in the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic Transvaal Supergroup on the Kaapvaal Craton, which contains multiple Superior-type IFs throughout its stratigraphy. Of these, the thickest and best developed IF is the approximately 2.5 Ga Asbesheuwels-Penge IF. Neoproterozoic, Rapitan-type IFs occur in the Gariep Belt of the Northern Cape Province of South Africa and southern Namibia as well as in the Damara and Otavi Belts of northern Namibia. These are associated with glacial diamictites and were deposited during the global Sturtian glaciation. The two major geochemical components in IFs are Fe2O3 and SiO2, with the Superior-type IFs of southern Africa generally having higher Fe2O3 and lower SiO2 contents than Algoma- and Rapitan-type IFs. Some IFs in the Pongola and Transvaal Supergroups are also enriched in MnO. The rare earth element contents of IFs generally indicate that they were precipitated from marine water, with Archean and Paleoproterozoic occurrences showing significant hydrothermal inputs. The stable C isotopes of Fe-rich carbonates in Superior-type IFs are depleted in 13C which suggest that it was sourced from organic C, implying biological activity during IF deposition. The depositional models developed for the Superior-type IFs of Southern Africa take into account lateral mineralogical facies variations in IFs, with Fe-silicate facies more proximal, Fe-carbonate facies intermediate and Fe-oxide facies more distal to the paleo-coastline. The precipitation of Fe was thought to have occurred through the oxidation of dissolved, hydrothermally-derived Fe2+ to Fe3+ by Fe-oxidizing bacteria, with the preserved mineralogical facies being formed during diagenesis or metamorphism. Although free oxygen is not required for Fe oxidation by photoferrotrophic bacteria, studies on Mn contents, Mo isotopes and the sequence stratigraphy of Fe-enrichment suggest that free oxygen was present during IF deposition in some instances. The Rapitan-type IFs of Southern Africa, due to their association with the Sturtian glaciation, are thought to have been deposited as a by-product of the global-scale glacial activity. Almost complete glacial ice cover would have led to reduced water bodies building up dissolved Fe2+, with melting of the ice sheets causing the oxidation and precipitation of Fe. Enrichment of IF to Fe ore took place by either top-down supergene (ore overlying oxidized IF) or bottom-up hydrothermal (ore underlying oxidized IF) processes that leached SiO2 and oxidized all Fe-bearing minerals. The ore-forming fluids likely had high Eh and high pH. The largest and best known supergene Fe ore deposits of Southern Africa are the Asbesheuwels Subgroup-hosted deposits at Sishen, Khumani, Beeshoek and Kolomela in the Nothern Cape Province of South-Africa. The best known hydrothermal Fe ore deposit is the Penge IF-hosted deposit at Thabazimbi in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Other smaller Fe ore deposits occur in the Transvaal Supergroup of South Africa and in the greenstone belts of the Zimbabwe Craton.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alexander BW, Bau M, Andersson P, Dulski P (2008) Continentally-derived solutes in shallow Archean seawater: Rare earth element and Nd isotope evidence in iron formation from the 2.9 Ga Pongola Supergroup, South Africa. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 72:378–394

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RA, Compston W, Retief EA, William LS, Welke HJ (1991) Zircon ion microprobe studies bearing on the age and evolution of the Witwatersrand triad. Precambr Res 53:243–266

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arndt NT, Wilson A, Hofmann A, Mason P, Bau M, Byerly G, Chunnett G (2012) Peering into the cradle of life: scientific drilling in the Barberton Greenstone Belt. Sci Drilling 13:71

    Google Scholar 

  • Basei MAS, Frimmel HE, Nutman AP, Preciozzi F, Jacob J (2005) A connection between the Neoproterozoic Dom Feliciano (Brazil/Uruguay) and Gariep (Namibia/South Africa) orogenic belts—evidence from a reconnaissance provenance study. Precambr Res 139:195–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bau M, Dulski P (1996) Distribution of yttrium and rare-earth elements in the Penge and Kuruman iron-formations, Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa. Precambr Res 79:37–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bau M, Romer RL, Lüders V, Beukes NJ (1999) Pb, O, and C isotopes in silici¢ed Mooidraai dolomite (Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa): implications for the composition of Paleoproterozoic seawater and ‘dating’ the increase of oxygen in the Precambrian atmosphere. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 174:43–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bekker A, Slack JF, Planavsky N, Krapež B, Hofmann A, Konhauser KO, Rouxel OJ (2010) Iron formation: the sedimentary product of a complex interplay among mantle, tectonic, oceanic, and biospheric processes. Econ Geol 105:467–508

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bekker A, Planavsky NJ, Krapež B, Rasmussen B, Hofmann A, Slack JF, Rouxel OJ, Konhauser KO (2014) Iron formations: their origins and implications for ancient seawater chemistry. In: Holland H, Turekian K (eds) Treatise on geochemistry. Elsevier, Waltham, pp 561–625

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Beukes NJ (1973) Prebambrian iron-formations of Southern Africa. Econ Geol 68:960–1004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beukes NJ (1983) Palaeoenvironmental setting of iron-formations in the depositional basin of the Transvaal supergroup, South Africa. In: Trendall AF, Morris RC (eds) Iron-formation: facts and problems. Elserivier, Amsterdam, pp 131–209

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Beukes NJ (1984) Sedimentology of the Kuruman and Griquatown iron-formation, Transvaal supergroup, Griqualand West, South Africa. Precambr Res 24:47–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beukes NJ (1995) Stratigraphy and basin analyses of the West Rand Group with special reference to prospective areas for placer gold deposits. Rand Afrikaans University Geology Department, Johannesburg, Unpublished Report, 117 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Beukes NJ, Cairncross B (1991) A lithostratigraphic-sedimentological reference profile for the Late Archaean Mozaan Group, Pongola sequence: application to sequence stratigraphy and correlation with the Witwatersrand supergroup. S Afr J Geol 94:44–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Beukes NJ, Gutzmer J (2008) Origin and paleoenvironmental significance of major iron formations at the Archean-Paleoproterozoic boundary. Rev Econ Geol 15:5–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Beukes NJ, Gutzmer J, Mukhopadhyay J (2003) The geology and genesis of high-grade iron ore deposits. Appl Earth Sci (Trans. Inst Min Metall B) 112:B18–B25

    Google Scholar 

  • Beukes NJ, Swindell EPW, Wabo H (2016) Manganese deposits of Africa. Episodes 39:285–317

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blignaut LC (2017) A petrographical and geochemical analysis of the upper and lower Maganese Ore Bodies from the Kalahari Manganese Deposit, Northern Cape, South Africa—Controls on Hydrothermal Metasomatism and Metal Upgrading. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, 257 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Block S, Moyen J-F, Zeh A, Poujol M, Jaguin J, Paquette J-L (2013) The Murchison Greenstone Belt, South Africa: accreted slivers with contrasting metamorphic conditions. Precambr Res 227:77–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bontognali TRR, Fischer WW, Föllmi KB (2013) Siliciclastic associated banded iron formation from the 3.2 Ga Moodies Group, Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa. Precambr Res 226:116–224

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandl G, Cloete M, Anhaeusser CR (2006) Archaean greenstone belts. In: Johnson MR, Anhaeusser CR, Thomas RJ (eds) The geology of South Africa. Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg, Council for Geoscience, Pretoria, pp 9–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger AJ, Coertze FJ (1973–74) Age determinations—April 1972–March 1974. Annal Geol Surv S Afr 10:135–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Carney MD, Mienie PJ (2003) A geological comparison of the Sishen and Sishen South (Welgevonden) iron ore deposits, Northern Cape Province, South Africa. Appl Earth Sci (Trans. Inst Min Metall B) 112:B81–B88

    Google Scholar 

  • Clout JMF, Simonson BM (2005) Precambrian iron formations and iron formation-hosted iron ore deposits. Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume, pp 643–679

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornell DH, Schütte SS, Eglington BL (1996) The Ongeluk basaltic andesite formation in Griqualand West, South Africa: Submarine alteration in a 2222 Ma proterozoic sea. Precambr Res 79:101–124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Des Marais DJ (2001) Isotopic evolution of the biogeochemical carbon cycle during the Precambrian. Rev Min Geochem 43:555–578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dirks PHGM, Jelsma HA (1998) Horizontal accretion and stabilization of the Archean Zimbabwe Craton. Geology 26:11–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Døssing LN, Frei R, Stendal H, Mapeo RBM (2009) Characterization of enriched lithospheric mantle components in ∼2.7 Ga banded iron formations: an example from the Tati Greenstone Belt, Northeastern Botswana. Precambr Res 172:334–356

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Du Toit A (2014) Ripple Creek iron ore deposit. The Geological Society of Zimbabwe, http://www.geologicalsociety.org.zw/atlas/ripple-creek-iron-ore-deposit

  • Dymek RF, Klein C (1988) Chemistry, petrology and origin of banded iron-formation lithologies from the 3800 Ma Isua supracrustal belt, West Greenland. Precambr Res 39:247–302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson PG, Altermann W, Hartzer FJ (2006) The Transvaal supergroup and its precursors. In: Johnson, MR, Anhaeusser, CR, Thomas, RJ (eds.) The Geology of South Africa. Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg, Council for Geoscience, Pretoria, pp 237–260

    Google Scholar 

  • Fedo CM, Eriksson KA (1995) Geologic setting and ideas concerning the origin of the iron-ore deposits at Buhwa, Zimbabwe. In: Blenkinsop TG, Tromp PL (eds) Sub-Saharan economic geology 1993. AA Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 43–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Fedo CM, Eriksson KA (1996) Stratigraphic framework of the ~3.0 Ga Buhwa Greenstone Belt: a unique stable-shelf succession in the Zimbabwe Craton. Precambr Res 77:161–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fölling PG, Frimmel HE (2002) Chemostratigraphic correlation of carbonate carbonate successions in the Gariep and Saldania Belts, Namibia and South Africa. Basin Res 14:69–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foster RP, Wilson JF (1984) Geological setting of Archaean gold deposits in Zimbabwe. In: Foster RP (ed) Gold ‘82. AA Balkema Publishing, Rotterdam, pp 521–549

    Google Scholar 

  • Frimmel HE, Fölling PG, Eriksson PG (2002) Neoproterozoic tectonic and climatic evolution recorded in the Gariep Belt, Namibia and South Africa. Basin Res 14:55–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fripp REP (1976) Stratabound gold deposits in Archean banded iron-formation, Rhodesia. Econ Geol 71:58–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaucher C, Sial AN, Frei R (2015) Chemostratigraphy of neoproterozoic banded iron formation (BIF): types, age and origin. In: Ramkumar MU (ed) Chemostratigraphy. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 433–449

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gross GA (1980) A classification of iron formations based on depositional environments. Can Min 18:215–222

    Google Scholar 

  • Gumsley AP, Chamberlain KR, Bleeker W, Söderland U, De Kock MO, Larsson ER, Bekker A (2017) Timing and tempo of the great oxidation event. PNAS 114:1811–1816

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo Q, Strauss H, Kaufman AJ, Schröder S, Gutzmer J, Wing B, Baker MA, Bekker A, Jin Q, Kim S-T, Farquhar J (2009) Reconstructing earth’s surface oxidation across the Archean-Proterozoic transition. Geology 37:399–402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gutzmer J, Beukes NJ (1995) Fault-controlled metasomatic alteration of early proterozoic sedimentary manganese ores in the Kalahari Manganese field, South Africa. Econ Geol 90:823–844

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gutzmer J, Beukes NJ (1996) Mineral paragenesis of the Kalahari manganese field, South Africa. Ore Geol Rev 11:405–428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gutzmer J, Beukes NJ, Pickard NJ, Barley ME (1999) SHRIMP age of a quartz porphyry sill in the Mozaan group: geochronological implication for the Pongola and the Witwatersrand Supergroups. S Afr J Geol 102(2):139–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutzmer J, Chisonga BC, Beukes NJ, Mukhopadhyay J (2008) The geochemistry of banded iron formation-hosted high-grade hematite-martite iron ores. Rev Econ Geol 15:157–183

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagemann S, Rosière C, Gutzmer J, Beukes NJ (2008) Introduction: banded iron formation-related high-grade iron ore. In: Hagemann S, Rosière C, Gutzmer J, Beukes NJ (eds) Reviews in economic geology, vol 15. Society of Economic Geologists, Littleton, pp 1–4

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammond NG, Moore JM (2006) Archaean lode gold mineralisation in banded iron formation at the Kalahari Goldridge deposit, Kraaipan Greenstone Belt, South Africa. Miner Deposita 41:483–503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harding CJ (2004) Origin of the Zeekoebaart and Nauga East high grade iron ore deposits, Northern Cape Province, South Africa. Unpublished M.Sc. dissertation, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg, 128 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Hegner E, Kröner A, Hunt P (1994) A precise U–Pb zircon age for the Archean Pongola Supergroup volcanics in Swaziland. J Afr Earth Sci 18(4):139–141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks N, Hofmann A (2012) Stratigraphy and Provenance of the auriferousuraniferous, fluvial to shallow-Marine Sinqeni Formation, Mozaan Group, Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. S Afr J Geol 115:327–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman PF, Kaufman AJ, Halverson GP, Schrag DP (1998) A neoproterozoic snowball earth. Science 281:1342–1346

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman PF (2013) The great oxidation and a Siderian snowball earth: MIF-S based correlation of paleoproterozoic glacial epochs. Chem Geol 362:143–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann A (2005) The geochemistry of sedimentary rocks from the Fig Tree Group, Barberton greenstone belt: Implications for tectonic, hydrothermal and surface processes during mid-Archaean times. Precambr Res 143:23–49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann A, Dirks PHGM, Jelsma HA, Natura N (2003) A tectonic origin for ironstone horizons in the Zimbabwe craton and their significance for greenstone belt geology. J Geol Soc London 160:83–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holland HD (2002) Volcanic gases, black smokers, and the Great Oxidation Event. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 66:3811–3826

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huizenga JM, Touret LR (1993) Fluid inclusions in shear zones: the case of the Umwindsi shear zone in the Harare-Shamva-Bindura greenstone belt, NE Zimbabwe. Eur J Min 11:1079–1090

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huston DL, Logan GA (2004) Barite, BIFs and bugs: evidence for the evolution of the Earth’s early hydrosphere. Earth Planet Sci Lett 220:41–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isley AE, Abbott DH (1999) Plume-related volcanism and the deposition of banded iron formation. J Geophys Res 104:15461–15477

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James HL (1954) Sedimentary facies of iron-formation. Econ Geol 49:235–293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jelsma HA, Van der Beek PA, Vinyu ML (1993) Tectonic evolution of the Bindura-Shamva greenstone belt (northern Zimbabwe): progressive deformation around diapiric batholiths. J Struct Geol 15:163–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson CM, Beard BL, Beukes NJ, Klein C, O’Leary JM (2003) Ancient geochemical cycling in the Earth as inferred from Fe isotope studies of banded iron formations from the Transvaal Craton. Contrib Miner Petrol 144:523–547

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson CM, Beard BL, Klein C, Beukes NJ, Roden EE (2008) Iron isotopes constrain biologic and abiologic processes in banded iron formation genesis. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 72:151–169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones IM, Anhaeusser CR (1993) Accretionary lapilli associated with Archaean banded iron formations of the Kraaipan Group, Amalia greenstone belt, South Africa. Precambr Res 61:117–136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kappler A, Pasquero C, Konhauser KO, Newman DK (2005) Deposition of banded iron formations by anoxygenic phototrophic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria. Geology 33:865–868

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman AJ (1996) Geochemical and mineralogical effects of contact metamorphism on banded iron-formation: an example from the Transvaal Basin, South Africa. Precambr Res 79:171–194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschvink JL (1992) Late Proterozoic low-latitude global glaciation: the Snowball Earth. In: Schopf JW, Klein C (eds) The proterozoic biosphere: a multidisciplinary study. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 51–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirschvink JL, Gaidos EJ, Bertani LE, Beukes NJ, Gutzmer J, Maepa LN, Steinberger RE (2000) Paleoproterozoic snowball earth: extreme climatic and geochemical global change and its biological consequences. PNAS 97:1400–1405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein C (2005) Some Precambrian banded iron-formations (BIFs) from around the world: Their age, geologic setting, mineralogy, metamorphism, geochemistry, and origin. Am Miner 90:1473–1499

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein C, Beukes NJ (1989) Geochemistry and sedimentology of a facies transition from limestone to iron-formation in the early proterozoic Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa. Econ Geol 84:1733–1774

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein C, Beukes NJ (1992) Models for iron-formation deposition. In: Schopf JW, Klein C (eds) The proterozoic biosphere: a multidisciplinary study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 147–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein C, Beukes NJ (1993a) Sedimentology and geochemistry of the glaciogenic late Proterozoic Rapitan iron-formation in Canada. Econ Geol 88:542–565

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein C, Beukes NJ (1993b) Proterozoic iron-formations. In: Condie K (ed) Proterozoic crustal evolution. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 383–418

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein C, Fink RP (1976) Petrology of the Sokoman iron formation in the Howells River area, at the western edge of the Labrador Trough. Econ Geol 71:453–487

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konhauser KO, Hamade T, Raiswell R, Morris RC, Ferris FG, Southam G, Canfield DE (2002) Could bacteria have formed the Precambrian banded iron formations? Geology 30:1079–1082

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kositcin N, Krapež B (2004) SHRIMP U-Pb detrital zircon geochronology of the Late Archaean Witwatersrand Basin of South Africa: relation between zircon provenance age spectra and basin evolution. Precambr Res 129:141–168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kramers JD, McCourt S, Van Reenen DD (2006) The Limpopo Belt. In: Johnson MR, Anhaeusser CR, Thomas RJ (eds) The geology of South Africa. Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg, Council for Geoscience, Pretoria, pp 209–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Kusky TM (1998) Tectonic setting and terrane accretion of the Archean Zimbabwe craton. Geology 26:163–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kusky TM, Kidd WSF (1992) Remnants of an Archean oceanic plateau, Belingwe greenstone belt, Zimbabwe. Geology 20:43–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lechte M, Wallace M (2016) Sub–ice shelf ironstone deposition during the neoproterozoic Sturtian glaciation. Geology 44:891–894

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lechte MA, Wallace MW, Hoffmann K-H (2017) Glaciomarine ironstone deposition in a ~700 Ma glaciated margin: insights from the Chuos Formation, Namibia. Geological Society of London Special Publications, in review

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald FA, Strauss JV, Rose CV, Dudás FŌ, Schrag DP (2010) Stratigraphy of the Port Nolloth Group of Namibia and South Africa and implications for the age of neoproterozoic iron formations. Am J Sci 310:862–888

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, A (1978) The geology of the Belingwe-Shabani schist belt. Rhodesia Geol Surv Bull 83, 213

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy TS (2006) The Witwatersrand Supergroup. In: Johnson MR, Anhaeusser CR, Thomas RJ (eds) The geology of South Africa. Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg, Council for Geoscience, Pretoria, pp 155–186

    Google Scholar 

  • McClung CR (2006) Basin analysis of the Mesoproterozoic Bushmanland Group of the Namaqua Metamorphic Province, South Africa. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, 307 p

    Google Scholar 

  • McCourt S, Van Reenen DD (1993) Structural geology and tectonic setting of the Sutherland Greenstone Belt, Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa. Precambr Res 55:93–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller RMCG (2013) Comparative stratigraphic and geochronological evolution of the northern Damara Supergroup in Namibia and the Katanga Supergroup in the Lufilian Arc of Central Africa. Geosci Canada 40:118–140

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyano T, Van Reenen DD (1987) Metamorphic conditions of the Rhenosterkoppies iron formation in the Southern Marginal Zone of the Limpopo Belt, South Africa. Annual Report of the Institute of Geoscience vol 13, University of Tsukuba, pp 119–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyano T, Beukes NJ (1997) Mineralogy and petrology of the contact Metamorphosed Amphibole Asbestos-bearing Penge iron formation, Eastern Transvaal, South Africa. J Petrol 38:651–676

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyano T, Beukes NJ, Van Reenen DD (1987) Metamorphic evidence for the early post-Bushveld sills in the Penge iron formation, Transvaal Sequence, Eastern Transvaal. S Afr J Geol 90:37–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Nel BP (2013) Petrogaphy and geochemistry of iron formations of the Paleoproterozoic Koegas Subgroup, Transvaal Supergroup, Griqualand West, South Africa. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, 133 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Netshiozwi ST (2002) Origin of high-grade hematite ores at Thabazimbi Mine, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Unpublished M.Sc. dissertation, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg, 135 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Nhleko N (2003) The Pongola Supergroup in Swaziland. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg, 300 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Oberthür T, Weiser TW (2008) Gold-bismuth-telluride-sulphide assemblages at the Viceroy Mine, Harare-Bindura-Shamva greenstone belt, Zimbabwe. Min Mag 72:953–970

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ossa Ossa F, Hofmann A, Vidal O, Kramers JD, Belyanin G, Cavalazzi B (2016) Unusual manganese enrichment in the Mesoarchean Mozaan Group, Pongola Supergroup, South Africa. Precambr Res 281:414–433

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Planavsky NJ, Asael D, Hofmann A, Reinhard CT, Lalonde SV, Knudsen A, Wang X, Ossa Ossa F, Pecoits E, Smith AJB, Beukes NJ, Bekker A, Johnson TM, Konhauser KO, Lyons TW, Rouxel OJ (2014) Evidence for oxygenic photosynthesis half a billion years before the great oxidation event. Nat Geosci 7:283–286

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Posth NR, Hegler F, Konhauser KO, Kappler A (2008) Alternating Si and Fe deposition caused by temperature fluctuations in Precambrian oceans. Nat Geosci 1:703–708

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poujol M, Robb LJ, Anhaeusser CR, Gericke B (2003) A review of the geochronological constraints on the evolution of the Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa. Precambr Res 127:181–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saager A, Oberthür T, Tomschi H-P (1987) Geochemistry and mineralogy of banded iron-formation-hosted gold mineralization in the Gwanda Greenstone Belt, Zimbabwe. Econ Geol 82:2017–2032

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schidlowski M (1987) Application of stable carbon isotopes to early biochemical evolution on earth. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 15:47–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schröder S, Bedorf D, Beukes NJ, Gutzmer J (2011) From BIF to red beds: sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy of the paleoproterozoic Koegas Subgroup (South Africa). Sed Geol 236:25–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith AJB (2007) The paleo-environmental significance of the iron-formations and iron-rich mudstones of the Mesoarchean Witwatersrand-Mozaan Basin, South Africa. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, 208 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith AJB (2015) The life and times of banded iron formations. Geology 43:1111–1112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith AJB, Gutzmer J, Beukes NJ, Reinkie C, Bau M (2008) Rare earth elements (REE) in banded iron formations—link between geochemistry and mineralogy. In: Proceedings of the 9th international congress for applied mineralogy, Australian Institute for Mining and Metallurgy (AusIMM), Brisbane, Australia, 8–10 Sept 2008, pp 651–658

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith AJB, Beukes NJ (2016) Palaeoproterozoic banded iron formation-hosted high-grade hematite iron ore deposits of the Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa. Episodes 39:269–284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith AJB, Beukes NJ, Gutzmer J (2013) The composition and depositional environments of Mesoarchean iron formations of the West Rand Group of the Witwatersrand Supergroup, South Africa. Econ Geol 108:111–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith AJB, Beukes NJ, Gutzmer J, Czaja AD, Johnson CM, Nhleko N (2017) Oncoidal granular iron formation in the Mesoarchaean Pongola Supergroup, southern Africa: textural and geochemical evidence for biological activity during iron deposition. Geobiology 15:731–749

    Google Scholar 

  • Stalder M, Rozendaal A (2002) Graftonite in phosphatic iron formations associated with the mid-Proterozoic Gamsberg Zn–Pb deposit, Namaqua Province, South Africa. Min Mag 66:915–927

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stalder M, Rozendaal A (2005) Distribution and geochemical characteristics of barite and barium-rich rocks associated with the Broken Hill-type Gamsberg Zn–Pb deposit, Namaqua Province, South Africa. S Afr J Geol 108:35–50

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sumner DY, Bowring SA (1996) U-Pb geochronologic constraints on deposition of the Campbellrand Subgroup, Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa. Precambr Res 79:25–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor RT, McLennan SM (1985) The continental crust: its composition and evolution. Blackwell Scientific, London, p 312

    Google Scholar 

  • Trendall AF (1983) Introduction. In: Trendall AF, Morris RC (eds) Iron-formation: facts and problems. Elserivier, Amsterdam, pp 1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Trendall AF, Compston W, Williams IS, Armstrong RA, Arndt NT, McNaughton NJ, Nelson DR, Barley ME, Beukes NJ, De Laeter JR, Retief EA, Thorne AM (1990) Precise zircon U–Pb chronological comparison of the volcano-sedimentary sequences of the Kaapvaal and Pilbara Cratons between about 3.1 and 2.4 Ga. In: Abstracts of the 3rd IAS conference, Perth, pp 81–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsikos H, Moore JM (1997) Petrographay and geochemistry of the paleoproterozoic Hotazel iron-formation, Kalahar manganese field, South Africa: implications for Precambrian manganese metallogenesis. Econ Geol 92:87–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsikos H, Beukes NJ, Moore JM, Harris C (2003) Deposition, diagenesis, and secondary enrichment of metals in the paleoproterozoic Hotazel iron formation, Kalahari manganese field, South Africa. Econ Geol 98:1449–1462

    Google Scholar 

  • United States Geological Survey (2015) Mineral commodity summaries 2015

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Schalkwyk JF, Beukes NJ (1986) The Sishen iron ore deposit, Griqualand West. In: Anhaeusser CR, Maske S (eds) Mineral deposits of Southern Africa. Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg, pp 931–956

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Deventer WF (2009) Textural and geochemical evidence for a supergene origin of the paleoproterozoic high-grade BIF-hosted iron ores of the Maremane Dome, Northern Cape Province, South Africa. Unpublished M.Sc. dissertation, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, 107 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Gehlen K, Nielsen H, Chunnett I, Rozendaal A (1983) Sulphur isotopes in metamorphosed Precambrian Fe–Pb–Zn–Cu sulphides and baryte at Aggeneys and Gamsberg, South Africa. Mineral Mag 47:481–486

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vearncombe JR (1986) Structure of veins in a gold-pyrite deposit in banded iron formation, Amalia greenstone belt, South Africa. Geol Mag 123:601–609

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Viehmann S, Bau M, Smith AJB, Beukes NJ, Dantas EL, Bühn B (2015) The reliability of ~2.9 Ga old Witwatersrand banded iron formations (South Africa) as archives for Mesoarchean seawater: Evidence from REE and Nd isotope systematics. J Afr Earth Sc 111:322–334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Von Brunn V, Gold DJC (1993) Diamictite in the Archaean Pongola sequence of southern Africa. J Afr Earth Sci (and the Middle East) 16:367–374

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson JF (1979) A preliminary reappraisal of the Rhodesian basement complex. Geol Soc S Afr Spec Publ 5:1–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson JF, Bickel MJ, Hawkesworth CJ, Martin A, Nisbet E, Orpen JL (1978) Granite-greenstone terranes of the Rhodesian Archaean craton. Nature 271:23–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young GM, Von Brunn V, Gold DJC, Minter WEL (1998) Earth’s oldest reported glaciation: physical and chemical evidence from the Archean Mozaan Group (~2.9 Ga) of South Africa. J Geol 106:523–538

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeh A, Gerdes A (2012) U–Pb and Hf isotope record of detrital zircons from gold-bearing sediments of the Pietersburg Greenstone Belt (South Africa)—is there a common provenance with the Witwatersrand Basin? Precambr Res 204–205:46

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the Department of Geology at the University of Johannesburg, the Paleoproterozoic Mineralisation Research Group (PPM), Kumba Iron Ore and the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) funded Centre of Excellence for Integrated Mineral and Energy Resource Analysis (CIMERA) for its funding and support. Thanks go to Nic Beukes and Jens Gutzmer for their guidance and mentorship, especially during my first research on iron formations; to Axel Hofmann and Maxwell Lechte for providing literature and photographs that helped in preparing this chapter; and to Conrad de Kock for assisting in the preparation of some of the figures.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Integrated Mineral and Energy Resource Analysis, Department of Geology, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa

    Albertus J. B. Smith

  2. Paleoproterozoic Mineralization Research Group, Department of Geology, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa

    Albertus J. B. Smith

Authors
  1. Albertus J. B. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Albertus J. B. Smith .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. GZG—Structural Geology and Geodynamics University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany

    Siegfried Siegesmund

  2. Geosciences Institute, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

    Miguel A. S. Basei

  3. Departamento de Geodinámica Interna, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay

    Pedro Oyhantçabal

  4. GZG—Structural Geology and Geodynamics University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany

    Sebastian Oriolo

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Smith, A.J.B. (2018). The Iron Formations of Southern Africa. In: Siegesmund, S., Basei, M., Oyhantçabal, P., Oriolo, S. (eds) Geology of Southwest Gondwana. Regional Geology Reviews. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68920-3_17

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation