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Indonesia: Challenges of Conflict and Consensus in the Era of Reformasi

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Comparative Politics of Southeast Asia

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Abstract

The Republic of Indonesia is the world’s largest archipelagic state. It is the most populous Muslim-majority country in the world with a population of more than 250 Million and one of Southeast Asia’s ethnically most heterogeneous societies. It is also the largest economy in the region and is regarded one of only a few relatively stable and well-functioning democracies in this part of the world. After decade long authoritarian rule collapsed in 1998, an elite settlement led to a series of inclusive democratic reforms and civil society saw a revival. Still, many challenges persist. These include widespread corruption, a weak rule of law and state administration, and a cumbersome consensus-driven political process. Problems of social and economic justice create social tensions that have the potential to unleash along ethnic lines. Religious minorities and proponents of social liberalism have suffered at the hands of Islamic extremists. Even though the consensus-oriented political system has so far kept political conflicts among the political within democratic channels, the slow speed of reform has also increased calls for a return to strongman politics and generated support for populist challengers of democracy. In the meantime, Indonesia’s democracy has remained resilient in the face of all these challenges, defying earlier expectations. This chapter provides a systematic overview of the political actors, institutions, and dynamics of Indonesia’s political system and summarizes its history and recent developments.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Islam in Indonesia is not a monolithic phenomenon. Anthropologists traditionally differentiate a strict, relatively scriptural practice of Islam (santri) and one that is more syncretistic in nature and integrates Sunni and Sufi practice with indigenous rituals and ancestral worship (abangan). Today, the parallel distinction between a modernist and traditionalist interpretation is more common (Bush 2009, p. 29). Religious scholars trained in the Middle East brought modernism to Indonesia in the 1920s and 1930s. It stresses the individual study of Islam’s scriptural sources in the Sunna and Koran. In contrast, traditionalist Islam places more trust in the magisterium of religious teachers, the ulema. Consequently, the two religious mass organizations associated with modernist and traditionalist Islam are called “Followers of Mohammed” (Muhammadiyah) and “Awakening of the Religious Scholars” (Nahdlatul Ulama). Modernism is more prevalent in the urban centers of Indonesia, in West Java, and Aceh, whereas traditionalism is stronger in rural areas and especially East Java. Within each school there are more liberal and radical members as well as different attitudes towards the relationship of Islam and politics. However, there are more radical Islamists among modernist Muslims in Indonesia (van Bruinessen 2002).

  2. 2.

    Officially recognized “religions” (agama) include Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, and Judaism. Even Hinduism, the dominant religion on Bali, is legally considered a monotheistic religion. Other “beliefs” (kepercayaan) like ancestral worship or animism, prevalent in eastern Indonesia, are not considered religions.

  3. 3.

    Suharto established Komnas HAM in 1993 to deflect international criticism of his human rights record.

  4. 4.

    In 1999, the president was indirectly elected by the MPR.

  5. 5.

    The restricted open-list system required voters to vote for one party and, if they wish, one candidate from that party. However, this would only have resulted in the election of a particular candidate out of the order in which names appear on the party list if that candidate gained more than a full Hare Quota of individual votes.

  6. 6.

    Originally, aliran characterized different cultural streams in Javanese society (Geertz 1960). However, to explain party system origins and changes, some party researchers (Ufen 2008, 2012) use it similarly to the concept of political cleavages in Lipset and Rokkan’s “cleavage model” (Lipset and Rokkan 1967).

  7. 7.

    For more details on the concept of stateness, see Chap. 11 on Timor-Leste.

  8. 8.

    TNI was the original name of the Indonesian Armed Forces. It was changed to Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia (Republic of Indonesia Armed Forces/ABRI) when Suharto incorporated the national police (POLRI) into the military’s ranks. In 2000, the name was changed back to TNI.

  9. 9.

    Sindrom Aku Rindu Suharto or “I Miss Suharto Syndrome”.

  10. 10.

    Of course, the historical origins of contemporary civil society are much older. For example, more traditional forms of mutual help (gotong royong) and rotating credit associations (arisan) have existed in Java and other places for centuries (Hadiwinata 2009, p. 280; Geertz 1960).

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  1. Institute of Political Science, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany

    Aurel Croissant & Philip Lorenz

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Croissant, A., Lorenz, P. (2018). Indonesia: Challenges of Conflict and Consensus in the Era of Reformasi. In: Comparative Politics of Southeast Asia. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68182-5_4

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