Skip to main content

Analysis of the Views of Both Established and Emerging Space Nations Regarding the Topic and Also Regarding the New US CSLCA of 2015

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Studies in Space Policy ((STUDSPACE,volume 12))

Abstract

As an alternative to terrestrial mining, asteroid mining could entail a change in the quality of life on Earth. In this point, it has been assumed that mining the outer space would lead to a reduction of terrestrial mining of some rare-Earth materials such as platinum. First of all, the most noticeable primary effects, caused to miners’ occupational health and safety on Earth, are the severe respiratory dysfunction caused by the inhalation of platinum salts, the risk of respiratory and kidney cancer for the mining of nickel and cardiovascular disease associated with the use of mercury for processing metals during the mining. On the other side, asteroid miners would be exposed to unknown chemical mixtures, possible microbiological organisms and a harmful dose of radiation. In addition, contamination of space objects or samples obtained in space could potentially lead to the spread of unknown diseases on Earth to which humans lack immunity to, as previously witnessed during historic land exploration. Thus, the human factor must be taken into account in the legislation for asteroid mining.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Notes

  1. 1.

    Pepys, M.B., 1972, Role of Complement in Induction of the Allergic Response, Nature New Biology, 237(74), 157–59.

  2. 2.

    Boffetta, P., et al., 2001, Mortality from cardiovascular diseases and exposure to inorganic mercury, Occupational & Environment Medicine, 58(7), 461–6.

  3. 3.

    International Space University Space Studies Program, 2010, ASTRA: ASteroid mining, Technologies Roadmap and Applications, Final Report, International Space University, Strasbourg.

  4. 4.

    Hlimi, 2015, The Next Frontier: An Overview of the Legal and Environmental Implications of Near-Earth Asteroid Mining.

  5. 5.

    Teicher, J. G., 2014, The Human Cost of South Africa’s Mining Industry. Available at: http://www.slate.com/blogs/behold/2014/09/09/ilan_godfrey_documents_the_impact_of_south_africa_s_mining_industry_in_his.html [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  6. 6.

    Popova, O.P., et al., 2013, Chelyabinsk Airburst, Damage Assessment, Meteorite Recovery, and Characterization, Science, 342(6162), 1069–1073.

  7. 7.

    Diekmann, A., & Richarz, H.P., 1999, Future role and significance of space activities in reflection of global social, technological and economic trends, Acta Astronautica, 45(11), 697–703.

  8. 8.

    Meyer, Z., 2010, Private Commercialization of Space in an International Regime: A Proposal for a Space District, Northern Journal of International Law and Business, 30(1), 241–261.

  9. 9.

    International Space University Space Studies Program, 2010, ASTRA: ASteroid mining, Technologies Roadmap and Applications, Final Report.

  10. 10.

    Avins, J., 2016, China’s “Jade Rabbit” rover found a new kind of moon rock, QUARTZ. Available at: http://qz.com/581824/chinas-jade-rabbit-rover-found-a-new-kind-of-moon-rock/ [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  11. 11.

    Looi, M.-K., 2008, World risks ‘scientific apartheid’, says top African scientist. Available at: http://www.scidev.net/global/policy/news/world-risks-scientific-apartheid-says-top-african-.html [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  12. 12.

    Sgobba, T., 2008, International Space Safety Space Standard. TRISMAC Conference 14–16 April 2008.

  13. 13.

    Roland, H.E., & Moriarty, B., 1990, System Safety Engineering and Management, Wiley and Sons, New York.

  14. 14.

    Sgobba, 2008, International Space Safety Space Standard.

  15. 15.

    Federal Aviation Administration, 2014, Recommended Practices for Human Space Flight Occupant Safety. Available at: https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/Recommended_Practices_for_HSF_Occupant_Safety-Version_1-TC14-0037.pdf [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  16. 16.

    Sgobba, 2008, International Space Safety Space Standard.

  17. 17.

    Harrison, A.A., 2002, Living in Space, in: Dasch, P. (ed.), Space Sciences, Volume 3: Humans in Space, Macmillan Reference USA, New York, 119–122.

  18. 18.

    Marshall, Y., 2009, Introduction to Space Safety, in: Musgrave, G.E., Larsen, A.M., & Sgobba, T., (eds.), Safety Design for Space Systems, Elsevier Ltd., Oxford, 3.

  19. 19.

    Sgobba, T., Wilde, P. D., Rongier, I., & Allahdadi, F. A., 2013, Introduction to Space Operations Safety, in: Allahdadi, F., Rongier, I. & Wilde, P., (eds.), Safety Design for Space Operations, Elsevier Ltd., Oxford, 7.

  20. 20.

    Pelton, J.N. & Jakhu, R.S., 2010, Introduction to space safety regulations and standards, in: Pelton, J.N. & Jakhu, R.S. (eds.): Space safety regulations and standards, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, xli-xliv.

  21. 21.

    Pelton, & Jakhu, 2010, Introduction to space safety regulations and standards.

  22. 22.

    Napier, L., & Hettrich, S., 2014, Interplanetary Contamination and Extraterrestrial Life, Space Safety Magazine. Available at: http://www.spacesafetymagazine.com/space-exploration/extraterrestrial-life/ [Accessed May 22, 2017].

  23. 23.

    International Council for Science, n.d., Space Research (COSPAR). Available at: http://www.icsu.org/what-we-do/interdisciplinary-bodies/cospar [Accessed March 2016].

  24. 24.

    International Organization for Standardization, n.d., ISO 14620–2:2011: Space systems – Safety requirements – Part 2: Launch site operations. Available at: https://www.iso.org/standard/46182.html [Accessed May 22, 2017].

  25. 25.

    Pelton, & Jakhu, 2010, Introduction to space safety regulations and standards.

  26. 26.

    Pelton, & Jakhu, 2010, Introduction to space safety regulations and standards.

  27. 27.

    International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety, 2016, Welcome to IAASS. Available at: http://iaass.space-safety.org [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  28. 28.

    Pelton, & Jakhu, 2010, Introduction to space safety regulations and standards.

  29. 29.

    Schweickart, R.L., 2004, The real deflection dilemma, Planetary Defense Conference: Protecting Earth from Asteroids, California, 23–26 February.

  30. 30.

    Schweickart, 2004, The real deflection dilemma.

  31. 31.

    Schweickart, 2004, The real deflection dilemma.

  32. 32.

    King, H., 2016, REE – Rare Earth Elements and their Uses. Available at: http://geology.com/articles/rare-earth-elements/ [Accessed May 19, 2017].

  33. 33.

    BBC News, 2016, Falling oil prices: How are countries affected? Available at: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-35345874 [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  34. 34.

    Calvo, G., Mudd, G., Valero, Al., & Valero, An., 2016, Decreasing Ore Grades in Global Metallic Mining: A Theoretical Issue or a Global Reality?, Resources, 5(4), 36–49.

  35. 35.

    Lewis, 1996, Mining the Sky: Untold Riches from the Asteroids, Comets, and Planets.

  36. 36.

    Ol’khovatov, A.Yu., 2003, Geographical Circumstances of the 1908 Tunguska Event in Siberia, Russia, Earth, Moon and Planets, 93(3), 163–73.

  37. 37.

    Tangum, R., 1992, Future Space Development Scenarios: Environmental Considerations, in: McKay, M.F., McKay, D.S., & Duke, M.B. (eds.), Space Resources: Social Concerns, NASA, Washington D.C., 220–30.

  38. 38.

    Sharma, R., 2011, Deep-Sea Mining: Economic, Technical, Technological, and Environmental Considerations for Sustainable Development, Marine Technology Society Journal, 45 (5), 28–41.

  39. 39.

    Kumar, A., Feasibility Studies. Available at: http://technology.infomine.com/reviews/FeasibilityStudies/welcome.asp?view=full [Accessed May 31, 2017].

  40. 40.

    Van Vuuren, A.J., 2015, The World’s Third-Biggest Platinum Miner Just Announced That It’s Cutting Production, Bloomberg. Available at: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-24/the-world-s-third-biggest-platinum-miner-just-announced-that-it-s-cutting-production [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  41. 41.

    Planetary Resources, n.d., Asteroid Composition. Available at: http://www.planetaryresources.com/asteroids/#asteroids-types-of-asteroids [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  42. 42.

    Government of South Africa, 2014, Mineral Resources. South Africa Yearbook 2014/15. Available at: http://www.gcis.gov.za/sites/www.gcis.gov.za/files/MineralResources.pdf [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  43. 43.

    Cohen, 2013, Robotic asteroid prospector (RAP) staged from L1: start of the deep space economy.

  44. 44.

    Blair, 2000, The Role of Near-Earth Asteroids in Long-Term Platinum Supply.

  45. 45.

    Sonter, M., 2006, Asteroid Mining: Key to the Space Economy. Available at: http://spsaero.us/Key_ComSpace_Articles/LibGen/LIB-077_Asteroid_Mining-Key_to_the_Space_Economy.pdf [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  46. 46.

    Statistics South Africa, 2012, National Accounts: Mineral Accounts for South Africa: 1980–2009. Available at: http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/D04052/D040522009.pdf [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  47. 47.

    Statistics Times, 2016, Projected GDP Ranking (2016–2020). Available at: http://statisticstimes.com/economy/projected-world-gdp-ranking.php [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  48. 48.

    Wilson, F., 2001, Minerals and migrants: how the mining industry has shaped South Africa, Daedalus, 130(1), 99–121.

  49. 49.

    Statistics South Africa, 2012, National Accounts: Mineral Accounts for South Africa: 1980–2009.

  50. 50.

    Blair, 2000, The Role of Near-Earth Asteroids in Long-Term Platinum Supply.

  51. 51.

    Venables, A.J., 2016, Using Natural Resources for Development: Why Has It Proven So Difficult?, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 30(1), 161–84.

  52. 52.

    Davies, R., 2015, Mining “still a key pillar for SA economy”. Available at: http://www.southafrica.info/news/mining-090215.htm#.VvIZqOJ97X4 [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  53. 53.

    Venables, 2016, Using Natural Resources for Development: Why Has It Proven So Difficult?

  54. 54.

    The Economist, 2005, The paradox of plenty. Available at: http://www.economist.com/node/5323394 [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  55. 55.

    Collier, P., Hoeffler, A., & Rohner, D., 2009, Beyond greed and grievance: feasibility and civil war, Oxford Economic Papers, 61(1), 1–27.

  56. 56.

    BBC News, 2016, Falling oil prices: How are countries being affected.

  57. 57.

    United Nations, 1967, Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

  58. 58.

    Listner, M., 2011, The Moon Treaty: failed international law or waiting in the shadows?, The Space Review. Available at: http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1954/1 [Accessed May 23, 2017]; Froehlich, A., 2017, Utilization – Consumption – Appropriation: Asteroid mining is in the pipeline, ZLW, 2, 268–281.

  59. 59.

    United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2008, United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space and related General Assembly resolutions.

  60. 60.

    United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2008, United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space and related General Assembly resolutions.

  61. 61.

    United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2008, United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space and related General Assembly resolutions.

  62. 62.

    Wolfrum, R., 1983, The Principle of the Common Heritage of Mankind, Heidelberg Journal of International Law, 43(2), 312–27.

  63. 63.

    Wolfrum, 1983, The Principle of the Common Heritage of Mankind.

  64. 64.

    Wolfrum, 1983, The Principle of the Common Heritage of Mankind.

  65. 65.

    United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 2004, Harmonization of Mining policies, standards, legislative and regulatory frameworks in southern Africa, United Nations, Addis Ababa.

  66. 66.

    Government of South Africa, 1993, Space Affairs Act of 1993.

  67. 67.

    Wolfrum, 1983, The Principle of the Common Heritage of Mankind.

  68. 68.

    Wolfrum, 1983, The Principle of the Common Heritage of Mankind.

  69. 69.

    United Nations, 2013, Recommendations on national legislation relevant to the peaceful exploration and use of outer space.

  70. 70.

    Simmons, T., 2016, The unfortunate provincialism of the space resources act, The Space Review. Available at: http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2910/1 [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  71. 71.

    INTOSAI Working Group on Environmental Auditing, 2010, INTOSAI WGEA Work Plan. Available at: http://www.environmental-auditing.org/Home/WGEAActivities/WorkPlans/tabid/112/Default.aspx [Accessed May 23, 2017].

  72. 72.

    Cook, K., 1999, The Discovery of Lunar Water: An Opportunity to develop a workable Moon Treaty, Georgetown Environmental Law Review, 11(3), 647–706.

  73. 73.

    Maslar, K., 1998, The Concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind in International Law, Brill, Leiden.

  74. 74.

    Lee, R., 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space, Springer Netherlands, The Hague.

  75. 75.

    Listner, M., 2003, The Ownership and Exploitation of Outer Space: A Look at Foundational Law and Future Legal Challenges to Current Claims, Regent Journal of International Law.

  76. 76.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  77. 77.

    United Nations, 1979, Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, United Nations, New York.

  78. 78.

    United Nations, 1979, Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, Article 11.

  79. 79.

    Davis, S., 2001, Unifying the Final Frontier: Space Industry Financing Reform, Commercial Law Journal, 106(4), 455ff.

  80. 80.

    United Nations, 1979, Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, Article 11(7); Harminderpal, S.R., 1994, The “Common Heritage of Mankind” & the Final Frontier: A Revaluation of Values Constituting the International Legal Regime for Outer Space Activities, Rutgers Law Journal, 26, 225ff.; and Gilpin, R., 2001, Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order, Princeton University Press, Princeton.

  81. 81.

    United Nations, 1994, Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, United Nations, New York.

  82. 82.

    United Nations, 1994, Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Article 144.

  83. 83.

    Opened for signature on 28 July 1994, 1836U.N.T.S. 3; 33 I.L.M. 1309 (entered into force on 28 July 1996), Annex, Section 5.

  84. 84.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space, 280 f.

  85. 85.

    Wassenaar Arrangement Secretariat, 2009, The Wassenaar Arrangement On Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies. Available at: http://www.wassenaar.org/ [Accessed May 22, 2017].

  86. 86.

    United Nations, 1967, Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

  87. 87.

    United Nations, 1967, Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

  88. 88.

    United Nations, 1979, Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, Article 7(1).

  89. 89.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  90. 90.

    Oliver, C.D., 1981, Interim Deep Seabed Mining Legislation: An International Environmental Perspective, Journal of Legislation, 8(1), 73–103.

  91. 91.

    Andrews, E., 1990, Tiny Tonga Seeks Satellite Empire in Space, The New York Times.

  92. 92.

    Friedman, M., 1954, The Reduction of Fluctuations in the Incomes of Primary Producers: A Critical Comment, Economics Journal, 64, 698–703; Bevan, D., Collier, P., & Gunning, J.W., 1993, Trade shocks in developing countries: Consequences and policy responses, European Economic Review, 37(2–3), 557–65; Davis, J., 1983, The economic effects of windfall gains in export earnings 1975–1978, World Development, 11(2), 119–39; and Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space, 289.

  93. 93.

    Panzar, A., 2000, A methodology for measuring the costs of universal service obligations, Information Economics and Policy, 12(3), 211–20.

  94. 94.

    Katkin, K., 2005, Communication Breakdown? The Future of Global Connectivity After the Privatisation of INTELSAT, Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 38(5), 1323–1402; and United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States, 2016, Criteria for Identification and Graduation of LDCs. Available at: http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/criteria-for-ldcs/ [Accessed May 22, 2017].

  95. 95.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  96. 96.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  97. 97.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  98. 98.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  99. 99.

    United Nations, 1972, Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, United Nations, New York, Article XIX.

  100. 100.

    Froehlich, 2017, Utilization – Consumption – Appropriation: Asteroid mining is in the pipeline.

  101. 101.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  102. 102.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  103. 103.

    Antarctic Treaty, opened for signature on 1 December 1959, 402 U.N.T.S. 71; 12 U.S.T. 794; 19 I.L.M. 860 (entered into force on 23 June 1961), Article IX.

  104. 104.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  105. 105.

    Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  106. 106.

    Membership to the International Fund for Agricultural Development requires approval by the Governing Council, in which voting rights are based on membership and financial contribution: Agreement Establishing the International Fund for Agricultural Development, opened for signature on 20 December 1976, 28 U.S.T. 8435; 15 I.L.M. 922 (entered into force on 30 November 1977), Articles 3 and 6. Membership subject to approval by a simple majority of the General Conference upon recommendation by the Board of Governors: Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency, opened for signature on 26 October 1956, 276 U.N.T.S. 3; 8 U.S.T. 1093 (entered into force on 29 July 1957), Articles IV and V; Membership is open to the Member States of the International Monetary Fund: Articles of Agreement of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Article II; Membership is to be on specific terms approved by a two-thirds majority of the Ministerial Conference: Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organisation, opened for signature on 15 April 1994, 1867 U.N.T.S. 154; 33 I.L.M. 1144 (entered into force on 1 January 1995), Article XII.

  107. 107.

    Froehlich, 2017, Utilization – Consumption – Appropriation: Asteroid mining is in the pipeline; Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  108. 108.

    Froehlich, 2017, Utilization – Consumption – Appropriation: Asteroid mining is in the pipeline; Lee, 2012, Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space.

  109. 109.

    Froehlich, 2017, Utilization – Consumption – Appropriation: Asteroid mining is in the pipeline.

  110. 110.

    United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 2014, Schematic overview of national regulatory frameworks for space activities, United Nations, Vienna.

  111. 111.

    United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 2014, Schematic overview of national regulatory frameworks for space activities.

  112. 112.

    South African Council for Space Affairs, 2013, National Registry of Objects Launched into Outer Space. Available at: http://www.sacsa.gov.za/registry/index.php [Accessed May 26, 2017].

  113. 113.

    Government of South Africa, 1993, Space Affairs Act of 1993.

  114. 114.

    Government of South Africa, 2008, South African National Space Agency Act.

  115. 115.

    South African Civil Aviation Authority, 2016, SACAA Mandate. Available at: http://www.caa.co.za/Pages/About%20Us/SACAA-Mandate.aspx [Accessed May 26, 2017].

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Froehlich, A. (2018). Analysis of the Views of Both Established and Emerging Space Nations Regarding the Topic and Also Regarding the New US CSLCA of 2015. In: Froehlich, A. (eds) Space Resource Utilization: A View from an Emerging Space Faring Nation . Studies in Space Policy, vol 12. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66969-4_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66969-4_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-66968-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-66969-4

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics