Abstract
The chapter describes the three religions of humanity, of Rousseau, Kant and Comte, to which Nussbaum refers in her book Political Emotions and which she hopes to revitalize. These three religions can be compared to the contemplative morality of Aristotle, which concerns the well-being of the citizens at which legislation and education are aimed.
Aristotle, however, pays greater attention to the civic morality of the enforcement of law than to the contemplative morality. From Aristotle’s model of rationality (dialogical) it can be concluded that much interpretation has to be done to conclude that a conflict can be narrowed down to a decision about the application of a specific rule. This interpretation requires extensive institutional arrangements, regulated by a judicial procedure. Only when such a judicial procedure is in place there can be political organization and a debate about the good and the bad in actual practice.
Enlightenment generated a different (categorical) model of rationality and transformed the state by taking technical practice as a model for political organization. It recognized contemplative morality only and downgraded civic morality to obedience to rules. In this way Enlightenment thinking endangers social coherence and political debate.
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Notes
- 1.
Best known in this respect Solum (2013).
- 2.
- 3.
Nussbaum connects here the moral psychology of compassion she had developed in Upheavals of Thought with the normative political philosophy she had already developed in her capabilities approach. See Nussbaum (2013), p. 449.
- 4.
Ibid., p. 256.
- 5.
Nussbaum emphasizes that Mill was a great admirer of Comte and introduced his works in England. She also refers to Tagore as great admirer.
- 6.
Nussbaum (2013), p. 20.
- 7.
Rousseau (1988), IV, p. 8.
- 8.
Edition used: Aristotle (1932).
- 9.
- 10.
- 11.
See Pellegrin (1986), pp. 120–122.
- 12.
Gotthelf and Lennox (1987), p. 288.
- 13.
- 14.
Ibid., pp. 21–40.
- 15.
See Romero (2012).
- 16.
Pellegrin (1986), p. 119.
- 17.
Edition used: Aristotle (1933).
- 18.
I disagree here with Cooper (1987), p. 243, who ascribes a counterfactual way of thinking to Aristotle.
- 19.
See for Aristotle’s concept of God (Met. 1072a27–33, 1072b4–22, 1074b32–35).
- 20.
See Mayr (1974) for a reference to Aristotle’s teleonomic programs and the way the world has been blinded to this idea. See especially also section 7 about Kant’s “as if solution” in the Critique of Judgment and the added explanatory comment of Pittendrigh (referring to Rosenblueth et al. 1943) that in the “newly – emerging computer period it was possible to design and build machines that had ends or purposes without implying that the purposes were the cause of the immediate operation of the machine.” See further about teleonomy in this volume Bombelli (2018) and de Matos (2018).
- 21.
Compare in this volume Fuselli (2018).
- 22.
Bogen and Young (2014).
- 23.
Ibid., p. 57.
- 24.
Edition used: Barnes (1984).
- 25.
- 26.
Pellegrin (1986), pp. 123 and 147–148.
- 27.
See for further explanation Pinho (2018).
- 28.
See Natali (2013), p. 97 about the collection of proverbs Aristotle was working on. These could well function as the overall premise of an argument in Rhetoric. “This activity of learned research, of collecting the most widely varying facts, such as this collecting of the proverbs, the popular maxims, and the sayings of the ancients, for instance, will remain one of Aristotle’s distinctive traits.”
- 29.
Practitioners will be foremost the authorities of the magistracies which regulate daily life.
- 30.
Natali (2001), pp. 174–175.
- 31.
The statement that free choice is essential for Aristotle’s view is wrong in my opinion, when applied to something like a personal life-plan. See for an example of this type of discussion, Mulgan’s critical argument versus Nussbaum in Mulgan (2000), specifically section 7.
- 32.
Compare the passage of EN 1141b29 with Met. 981a30.
- 33.
See Natali (2001), p. 24, who explains that for Aristotle the demarcation between both was not very sharp such as in the modern conception of the difference between praxis and technique.
- 34.
This aspect of variability is absent in Broadie (1987), p. 47 and because of this she elaborates her “craftsmen analogy” in the context of “the massive constancy that is nature’s hallmark.”
- 35.
Edition used: Barnes (1984).
- 36.
See Scholten (2014), p. 502 (http://www.paulscholten.eu/dutch-english/#section_28) for an exposition of this same idea of the decision as an act, not written as an exposition of Aristotle’s ideas but as the general accepted method of civil law in the Netherlands in 1931.
- 37.
Natali (2001), pp. 12–13.
- 38.
Edition used: Barnes (1984).
- 39.
Blackwell (2003) writes that “The democratic government of Athens rested on three main institutions, and a few others of lesser importance. The three pillars of democracy were: the Assembly of the Demos, the Council of 500, and the People’s Court.” This ignores completely the relevance of the magistracies and their function for practical wisdom. It suggests that practical wisdom is acquired by deliberation in the Assembly and Law-courts, but voting is not the same as decision-taking in a situation of responsibility. Blackwell describes participation in the Council as follows: “Although participation in the Council was paid, and considered an office, it also seems to have been considered an unexceptional part of a citizen’s life, rather than a part of a political career.” On the whole Blackwell has no eye for the intellectual challenge of the Council’s tasks.
- 40.
Nearly all magistrates who were concerned with the ordinary routine of administration were elected by lot (Ath. Const. 43). The same passage informs that the Council of 500 was elected by lot, 50 from each tribe; that each tribe held the office of Prytanes in turn (ordered by lot) for 36, respectively 35 days; that the 50 of the tribe that held the Prytane-office messed together in that period and were paid for their maintenance; that these 50 convened daily meetings of the Council, and four times in their period the meetings of the Assembly; that it was their duty to draw up the program of the business of the Council and to decide what subjects were to be dealt with on each particular day and where the sitting was to be held; that they also drew up the program for the meetings of the Assembly.
- 41.
This feature of a separation between the formal and substantial decision has always been pointed out by Romanists as the peculiar strength of Roman Civil Law. See for example Gardini (2015).
- 42.
Blackwell (2003).
- 43.
Pellegrin (1987), p. 122.
- 44.
- 45.
- 46.
- 47.
See in this volume also Coelho (2018).
- 48.
“The law enacts that anyone who does not serve as Arbitrator when he has arrived at the necessary age shall lose his civil rights…” (Ath. Const. 53, trans.).
- 49.
Compare in this volume Bonanno and Corso (2018).
- 50.
Blackwell (2003). Laws were passed through a process called nomothesia or “legislation.” Each year the Assembly met to discuss the current body of laws. Any citizen could propose a change in the laws, but could only propose the repeal of a law if he suggested another law to replace the repealed law. If the Assembly decided to change the laws, a board of “Nomothetai” or “legislators” was selected to review and revise the laws. The process of legislation was like a trial, with advocates speaking in defense of the existing laws, and others speaking against the existing laws. The Nomothetai would vote on changes, and any changes that passed were published on inscriptions near the statues of the Eponymous Heroes and read aloud at the next meeting of the Assembly. The Nomothetai also undertook an annual review of all existing laws to make sure that none contradicted others and that none were redundant.
- 51.
See for a recent discussion of these opinions Bates (2013), p. 62/64. It is interesting here to draw a parallel with the concept of fundamental laws developed by Ulrik Huber (1636–1694) as described in van Nifterik (2016): “Proper laws must be “given” and “announced.” (Huber DJC I.3.5.13) Tacit laws obviously are not; they are so to say implicit in the idea of political power.” As concerned express fundamental laws Huber emphasized that they too so to say antedate the state and the ruler, since they lay the fundament thereof; fundamental laws are the constitutiones (DJC I.3.5.21) or “grondwetten” (HR II.i.7.21).
- 52.
- 53.
“But since, just as with all other natural organisms those things that are indispensable for the existence of the whole are not parts of the whole…(…) Hence although states need property, the property is not part of the state. (…) for as each set of people pursues participation in happiness in a different manner and by different means they make for themselves different modes of life and different constitutions. (…) And we must also further consider how many there are of these things referred to that are indispensable for the existence of a state; for among them will be the things which we pronounce to be parts of a state, owing to (the function for LHC) which their presence is essential. We must therefore consider the list of occupations that a state requires: for from these it will appear what the indispensable classes are.” (Pol. 1328a24–1328b4, trans. Rackham).
- 54.
Kelsen (1937), section 4.
- 55.
The same argument returns in Rousseau (1772), p. 12.
- 56.
Nussbaum (1988).
- 57.
Mulgan (2000).
- 58.
In the famous allegory of the cave in Plato’s Republic, the people in the cave think that the shadows of statues are real.
- 59.
Gimpel (1977).
- 60.
Pellegrin (1986), pp. 45/46 and 120. As a cognitive strategy says Pellegrin (25).
- 61.
She glorifies the agonal spirit of that period: “the passionate drive to show one’s self in measuring up against others that underlies the concept of politics prevalent in the city-states.” Arendt (1998), p. 194.
- 62.
- 63.
Compare Drosterij (2008).
- 64.
Pellegrin (1986), p. 55.
- 65.
- 66.
Pellegrin (1986), pp. 45 and 163.
- 67.
Israel (1995).
- 68.
- 69.
van Ruler (1991), p. 79.
- 70.
Ibid., p. 88. Similar to Aquinas Voetius elaborates the idea of secondary causality, which concurs with God’s primary causality.
- 71.
Pellegrin (1986), p. 123. Pellegrin calls the method of Aristotle moriology, referring to it as a research of parts. See also Steel (2010). To emphasize the normative assumption, implied in the taxonomic method of Begriffsjurisprudenz, I used the name normative inductivism in my thesis Huppes-Cluysenaer (1995), p. 164.
- 72.
von Savigny (1973).
- 73.
Hobbes (1986), II, pp. 17 and 225.
- 74.
Compare Kelsen (1941), p. 93.
- 75.
Rousseau (1988), IV, p. 8.
- 76.
Ibid., III, p. 1.
- 77.
Hobbes (1986), II, pp. 17 and 226.
- 78.
- 79.
Rousseau (1988), I, p. 8.
- 80.
See Drosterij (2008). Nation-building brings about a change in the focus of political theory: from jurisdiction to will-formation.
- 81.
Rousseau (1772), p. 2.
- 82.
Information based on a lecture by M. de Wilde in Amsterdam, not on reading the document (de Wilde 2017).
- 83.
Rousseau (1988), II, p. 7.
- 84.
Ibid., II, p. 6.
- 85.
Ibid., II, p. 7.
- 86.
Drosterij (2008), p. 137.
- 87.
Rousseau (1988), IV, p. 8.
- 88.
Rousseau (1772), pp. 4–5.
- 89.
Rousseau (1988), III, p. 8. See also II, 7, footnote 9.
- 90.
This duality can be read in terms of a civic and contemplative morality.
- 91.
Rousseau (1988), III, p. 8.
- 92.
Ibid., III, p. 8.
- 93.
Plato (1970).
- 94.
Rousseau (1988), II, p. 7.
- 95.
Shklar (1978), pp. 263–268.
- 96.
Ibid.
- 97.
Habermas (1989), section 7.
- 98.
Rousseau (1772), p. 12.
- 99.
Kant (1784).
- 100.
Kant (1992), p. 409.
- 101.
Ibid., p. 17.
- 102.
Bernard (1992), pp. xxv–xxxvii.
- 103.
Kant (1784).
- 104.
Kant (1979).
- 105.
Ibid.
- 106.
Ibid.
- 107.
Ibid.
- 108.
Ibid.
- 109.
Ibid.
- 110.
Kant (1992), p. 8.
- 111.
Comte (1975a).
- 112.
Comte (1975b).
- 113.
Ibid., p. 8.
- 114.
Comte (1975a), p. 29.
- 115.
Ibid., p. 9.
- 116.
Pound (1945), p. 304.
- 117.
Timasheff (1939), pp. 45 and 46. About Comte Timasheff writes: “Prophesying the disappearance of law, he expressed the opinion that law had played a useful part during the transitory period of revolution, because it helped to dissolve the previous social system. That Comte’s attitude was not accidental is corroborated by the fact that another great sociological system, born almost simultaneously with his, comprised an analogous prophesy of the disappearance of law with the advance of society: for K. Marx, law was one of the “super structures” characteristic of the “bourgeois” order and was to “wither away” together with the State, after the establishment of classless society.”
- 118.
Ibid., p. 20.
- 119.
Ibid., p. 22.
- 120.
Ibid., pp. 23–26.
- 121.
Ibid., p. 28.
- 122.
- 123.
Comte (1975c), p. 408.
- 124.
Comte (1975d), p. 393.
- 125.
Ibid., p. 396.
- 126.
Ibid., pp. 396–398.
- 127.
Ibid., p. 398. And Comte (1975c), p. 399.
- 128.
Comte (1975e), p. 384.
- 129.
Comte (1975f), pp. 461–464.
- 130.
Oleksy (2015), p. 20.
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Huppes-Cluysenaer, L. (2018). Religion of Humanity: A Shift from a Dialogical to a Categorical Model of Rationality. In: Huppes-Cluysenaer, L., Coelho, N. (eds) Aristotle on Emotions in Law and Politics. Law and Philosophy Library, vol 121. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66703-4_8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66703-4_8
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