The Transnational Activist: An Introduction

Berger, Stefan; Scalmer, Sean

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-66206-0_1

Stefan Berger⁵ &
Sean Scalmer⁶

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in the History of Social Movements ((PSHSM))

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1 Citations

Abstract

The identity and association of the ‘transnational activist’ so far have not been the subject of detailed historical scholarship. And although historians lately have begun to explore social movements in a global historical perspective, their descriptions of figures of global activism appear ideologically too narrow to describe all forms of transnationalism connected to social movements. This volume therefore proposes the term ‘transnational activist’ and approaches the history of this actor by examining five central controversies: those of periodisation (is this activist a figure mainly of the twentieth century?); context (what are the historical contexts that nurtured the emergence of transnational social movements?); action (what does the activist do?); form (what ‘types’ of transnational activists are there, and do they differ when considering different periods of globalisation?); and dynamics (examining how reinvented actions may themselves become new objects of diffusion, thereby conceptualising the process as more “continuous” and recursive). When discussing these controversies, this collection deliberately focusses on the Anglo World, seeking to place the ‘transnational activist’ in the context of imperial relationships and movements, and to bring these into dialogue with the more familiar ‘global’ activism of the late-twentieth and early-twenty-first centuries. Thereby, in spite of not being exhaustive, it considers a long time period, and a variety of colonial and post-colonial contexts, as well as of activists from many different movements.

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Notes

1.
Oxford English Dictionary (online). See the definition of ‘activist,’ 2a and 2b, and the earliest references.
2.
Henk te Velde, ‘Political Transfer: An Introduction’, European Review of History, vol. 12, no. 2, July 2005, p. 205.
3.
See, for example: Ulrich Beck, ‘The Cosmopolitan Society and its Enemies,’ Theory Culture and Society, vol. 19, no. 1–2, 2002, p. 17.
4.
The most influential collections are Donatella della Porta and Sidney Tarrow , eds., Transnational Protest and Global Activism , Lanham and Oxford : Rowman & Littlefield, 2005; Jackie Smith and Hank Johnston, eds., Globalization and Resistance: Transnational Dimensions of Social Movements, Lanham and Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002. The most influential single work is Sidney Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism, Cambridge and New York : Cambridge University Press, 2006. On the transnationalisation of social movements in Europe , see also Donatella della Porta and Manuela Caiani, Social Movements and Europeanisation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
5.
Stefan Berger and Holger Nehring, Social Movements in Global Historical Perspective: An Introduction, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017. One of the most inspiring historical sociologists in this field was undoubtedly Charles Tilly . Among his many seminal contributions to the field, see in particular Charles Tilly and Lesley J. Wood, Social Movements 1768–2012, London: Routledge, 2012; Charles Tilly and Sidney Tarrow, Contentious Politics, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
6.
Moving the Social: Journal of Social History and the History of Social Movements has been published in English since 2012. See http://moving-the-social.ub.rub.de/index.php/Moving_the_social [Access Date 7 July 2017].
7.
Jackie Smith and Dawn Wiest, Social Movements in the World-System: The Politics and Crisis and Transformation, New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2012; Donatella della Porta , Massimiliano Andretta, Lorenzo Mosca, and Herbert Reiter , Globalization from Below: Transnational Activists and Protest Networks, Minneapolis and London : University of Minnesota Press, 2006; Savyasaachi and Ravi Kumar, eds., Social Movements: Transformative Shifts and Turning Points, New Delhi and Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
8.
For example: Elisabeth Jay Friedman, Ann Marie Clark, and Kathryn Hochstetler, Sovereignty, Democracy, and Global Civil Society: State-Society Relations at the UN World Conferences, New York: State University of New York Press, 2005; Chadwick Alger, ‘The Emerging Roles of NGOs in the UN System: From Article 71 to a Millennium People’s Assembly,’ Global Governance, vol. 8, no. 1, 2002, pp. 93–117.
9.
For example: Thomas Olesen, ‘The Uses and Misuses of Globalization in the Study of Social Movements,’ Social Movement Studies, vol. 4, no. 1, May 2005, pp. 49–63; Paolo Gerbaudo, Tweets and the Streets: Social Media and Contemporary Activism, London: Pluto Press, 2012; Manuel Castells, Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age, Cambridge, UK and Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2012.
10.
Donatella della Porta and Sidney Tarrow , ‘Transnational Processes and Social Activism: An Introduction,’ in Donatella della Porta and Sidney Tarrow, eds., Transnational Protest, p. 3.
11.
Among the most interesting studies: David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, ‘Alternative Types of Cross-National Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena,’ in Donatella della Porta , Hanspeter Kriesi , and Dieter Rucht, eds., Social Movements in a Globalizing World, London : Macmillan, 1999, pp. 23–39; Doug McAdam , ‘“Initiator” and “Spin-Off” Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles,’ in Mark Traugott , ed., Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995, pp. 217–239; Deborah Barrett and Charles Kurzman, ‘Globalizing social movement theory: The case of eugenics,’ Theory and Society, vol. 33, 2004, pp. 487–527; Sean Chabot, ‘Transnational Diffusion and the African-American Reinvention of the Gandhian Repertoire,’ Mobilization, vol. 5, 2000, pp. 201–216. A sustained attempt to treat the process historically is that by Sean Scalmer , Gandhi in the West: The Mahatma and the Rise of Radical Protest, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
12.
For the first major application of world-systems theory to the history of social movements, see Giovanni Arrighi, Terence K. Hopkins, and Immanuel Wallerstein, Antisystemic Movements, London: Verso, 1989. For a rich attempt to apply this framework to the long-term trajectory of the labour movement : Beverly J. Silver, Forces of Labor: Workers’ Movements and Globalization Since 1870, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. For an exciting application of this approach to contemporary movements that challenge corporate-led globalisation: Jackie Smith and Dawn Wiest, Social Movements in the World-System: The Politics of Crisis and Transformation, New York : Russell Sage Foundation, 2012.
13.
See, for example, Jackie Smith, Charles Chatfield, Ron Pagnucco, eds., Transnational Social Movements and Global Politics: Solidarity Beyond the State, Syracuse/New York: Syracuse University Press, 1997; Jackie Smith, Ron Pagnucco, and Winnie Romeril, ‘Transnational Social Movement Organisation in the Global Arena,’ Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Non-Profit Organisations, vol. 5:2, 1994, pp. 121–154; Sabrina Zajak, Transnational Activism, Local Labor Governance and China, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017; Ghimire Kléber, Organization Theory and Transnational Social Movements, Lanham/Maryland: Lexington Books, 2011.
14.
Donatella della Porta and Sidney Tarrow, ‘Transnational Processes and Social Activism: An Introduction,’ in: eidem, eds., Transnational Protest and Global Activism, Lanham/Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006, p. 2f.
15.
Although it should be mentioned that several contributions to the Palgrave Studies in the History of Social Movements take a transnational look at social movements , e.g., its flagship publication by Stefan Berger and Holger Nehring, eds., The History of Social Movements in Global Perspective. A Survey, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017, but also: Ilaria Favretto and Xabier Itcaina, eds., Protest, Popular Culture and Tradition in Modern and Contemporary Western Europe, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017; Christian Salm, Transnational Socialist Networks in the 1970s. European Community Development Aid and Southern Enlargement, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016; Jon Piccini, Transnational Protest, Australia and the 1960s: Global Radicals, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.
16.
Sean Chabot and Jan Willem Duyvendak, ‘Globalization and Transnational Diffusion Between Social Movements: Reconceptualizing the Dissemination of the Gandhian Repertoire and the “Coming out” Routine,’ Theory and Society, vol. 31, 2002, p. 699.
17.
Everett M. Rogers , Diffusion of Innovations, 5th edn., New York: Free Press, 2003, p. 283.
18.
Sidney Tarrow , The New Transnational Activism, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 35.
19.
Sidney Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism, chap. 3.
20.
Stefan Berger , ‘National History and Humanism: Reflections on a Difficult Relationship,’ in Chun-Chieh Huang and Jörn Rüsen, eds., Chinese Historical Thinking. An Intercultural Discussion, Taipei: National Taiwain University Press, 2015, pp. 125–134.
21.
Richard Falk, ‘The Making of Global Citizenship’ in Bart van Steenbergen, ed., The Condition of Citizenship, London : Sage, 1994, pp. 138–139.
22.
Hermann Maiba, ‘Grassroots Transnational Social Movement Activism: The Case of People’s Global Action,’ Sociological Focus, vol. 38, no. 1, February 2005, pp. 57–58.
23.
As noted in Jonathan Fox, ‘Unpacking “Transnational Citizenship,”’ Annual Review of Political Science, vol. 8, 2005, p. 181.
24.
Rachel E. Stern, ‘Unpacking Adaptation: The Female Inheritance Movement in Hong Kong ,’ Mobilization, vol. 10, no. 3, 2005, p. 434.
25.
Shalini Randeria, ‘Footloose Experts vs. Rooted Cosmpolitans : Biodiversity Conservation, Transnationalisation of Law and Conflict Among Civil Society Actors in India,’ Tsantsa, no. 8, 2003, pp. 74–85.
26.
Raffaele Marchetti , ‘Mapping Alternative Models of Global Politics,’ International Studies Review, vol. 11, 2009, p. 145.
27.
Der Spiegel, cited in Felix Kolb, ‘The Impact of Transnational Protest on Social Movement Organisations: Mass Media and the Making of ATTAC Germany,’ in Donatella della Porta and Sidney Tarrow , eds., Transnational Protest and Global Activism , Lanham and Oxford : Rowman & Littlefield, 2005, p. 95.
28.
Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity, Malden and Oxford: Blackwell, 1997, p. 107.
29.
Richard Kahn and Douglas Kellner, ‘New Media and Internet Activism: From the ‘Battle of Seattle’ to Blogging’, New Media and Society, vol. 6, no. 1, 2004, p. 88.
30.
They are discussed in some depth in (e.g.) Sharon Erickson Nepstad and Clifford Bob, ‘When Do Leaders Matter? Hypotheses on Leadership Dynamics in Social Movements,’ Mobilization, vol. 11, no. 1, 2006, pp. 1–22; Sidney Tarrow and Doug McAdam , ‘Scale Shift in Transnational Contention,’ in Donatella della Porta and Sidney Tarrow, eds., Transnational Protest and Global Activism , Lanham and Oxford : Rowman & Littlefield, 2005, pp. 121–147.
31.
Jeffrey Scott Juris and Geoffrey Henri Pleyers, ‘Alter-activism: Emerging Cultures of Patriotism among Young Global Justice Activists,’ Journal of Youth Studies, vol. 12, no. 1, February 2009, p. 70; Simon Prince, ‘The Global Revolt of 1968 and Northern Ireland,’ Historical Journal, vol. 49, no. 3, September 2006, p. 867.
32.
For example, Juris and Pleyers, ‘Alter-activism,’ p. 58.
33.
Bryan S. Turner, ‘Cosmopolitan Virtue, Globalization and Patriotism,’ Theory, Culture and Society, vol. 19, no. 1–2, 2002, p. 51.
34.
Wolfram Kaiser, ‘Transnational Mobilization and Cultural Representation: Political Transfer in an Age of Proto-Globalization, Democratization and Nationalism, 1848–1914,’ European Review of History, vol. 12, no. 2, July 2005, pp. 403–404; Sean Scalmer , ‘Social Movement Studies and the Nature of Contemporary Movements: New Challenges, Enduring Habits,’ Australian Journal of Political Science, vol. 50, no. 4, December 2015, pp. 761–771.
35.
Goran Therborn, ‘Globalizations: Dimensions, Historical Waves, Regional Effects, Normative Governance,’ International Sociology, vol. 15, no. 2, June 2000, pp. 151–179; A.G. Hopkins, ‘The History of Globalization—and the Globalization of History?,’ in A.G. Hopkins, ed., Globalization in World History, London: Pimlico, 2002, pp. 11–46; Jürgen Osterhammel, The Transformation of the World. A Global History of the Nineteenth Century, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015; Sebastian Conrad and Dominic Sachsenmaier, eds., Competing Visions of World Order: Global Moments and Movements, 1880s–1930s, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
36.
Benjamin Lee, ‘Peoples and Publics,’ Public Culture, vol. 10, no. 2, 1998, p. 372.
37.
Donatella della Porta and Sidney Tarrow , ‘Transnational Processes and Social Activism: An Introduction,’ in Donatella della Porta and Sidney Tarrow, eds., Transnational Protest and Global Activism , Lanham and Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005, p. 3.
38.
Wolfram Kaiser, ‘Transnational Mobilization and Cultural Representation: Political Transfer in an Age of Proto-Globalization, Democratization and Nationalism, 1848–1914,’ European Review of History, vol. 12, no. 2, July 2005, p. 410.
39.
On the international spread of the 1848 uprisings: Kurt Weyland, ‘The Diffusion of Revolution: ‘1848’ in Europe and Latin America,’ International Organisation, vol. 63, no. 3, July 2009, pp. 391–423. On the international transfer of the barricade from its use in France: Dennis Bos, ‘Building Barricades: the Political Transfer of a Contentious Roadblock,’ European Review of History, vol. 12, no. 2, July 2005, pp. 345–365.
40.
C.S. Blanc, L. Basch, and N.G. Schiller, ‘Transnationalism , nation-states, and culture,’ Current Anthropology, vol. 36, 1995, pp. 683–686.
41.
See the case of Garibalid (e.g.): Lucy Riall, Garibaldi: Invention of a Hero, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007.
42.
Mark Traugott , The Insurgent Barricade, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010.
43.
Craig Calhoun , The Roots of Radicalism. Tradition, the Public Sphere and Early Nineteenth-Century Social Movements, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.
44.
See, for example, Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe 1850–2000, Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2012; Donald Sassoon, One Hundred Years of Socialism: The West European Left in the Twentieth Century, new edition, London: I.B. Tauris, 2014; Stefan Berger , The British Labour Party and the German Social Democrats. A Comparison, 1900–1933, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994, especially chapter 6; Kevin J. Callahan, Demonstration Culture: European Socialism and the Second International 1889–1914, London: Troubador, 2010.
45.
Michel Espagne and Michael Werner , Transferts: Les Relations Interculturelles dans L’Espace Franco-Allemand (Paris 1988). See also Michael Werner and Benedicte Zimmermann , ‘Beyond Comparison: “Histoire Croisee” and the Challenge of Reflexivity,’ History and Theory, vol. 45, no. 1, 2006, pp. 30–50.
46.
Stefan Berger , ‘Comparative History’, in Stefan Berger, Heiko Feldner, and Kevin Passmore, eds., Writing History: Theory and Practice, 2nd edn., London : Bloomsbury, 2010, pp. 187–208.
47.
Marcel van der Linden , ‘Social Movements in Europe, 1000–2000’, in Berger and Nehring, eds., Social Movements.
48.
Michael Hanagan, ‘Irish Transnational Social Movements, Migrants, and the State System,’ in Jackie Smith and Hank Johnston, eds., Globalization and Resistance: Transnational Dimensions of Social Movements, Lanham and Oxford : Rowman and Littlefield, 2005, pp. 53–73.
49.
Juris and Pleyers, ‘Alter-activism’, p. 70.
50.
Selina Gallo-Cruz, ‘Organizing Global Nonviolence: The Growth and Spread of Nonviolent INGOs, 1948–2003,’ in Sharon Erickson Nepstad and Lester R. Kurtz, eds., Nonviolent Conflict and Civil Resistance (Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, Vol. 34), Emerald Group Publishing, p. 236, p. 240. Less structured institutions, such as the World Social Forum, have been specifically identified as crucial to the emergence of global social movements in Raffaele Marchetti , ‘Mapping Alternative Models of Global Politics,’ International Studies Review, vol. 11, 2009, pp. 146–147.
51.
Deborah Barrett and Charles Kurzman, ‘Globalizing Social Movement Theory: The Case of Eugenics,’ Theory and Society, vol. 33, 2004, pp. 487–527.
52.
Ulf Hannerz, Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places, London and New York: Routledge, 1996, pp. 104–106.
53.
Jackie Smith and Dawn Wiest, Social Movements in the World-System: The Politics and Crisis and Transformation, New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2012.
54.
Ulrich Beck, ‘The Cosmopolitan Society and its Enemies,’ Theory Culture and Society, vol. 19, no. 1–2, 2002, p. 29.
55.
See the impressive Smith and Wiest, Social Movements in the World-System.
56.
della Porta and Tarrow, ‘Transnational Processes and Social Activism,’ p. 3.
57.
The concept was introduced in Doug McAdam , Sidney Tarrow , and Charles Tilly , Dynamics of Contention, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Among its major uses since: Chabot and Duyvendak, ‘Globalization and Transnational Diffusion Between Social Movements’; Ion Bodgan Vasi, ‘Brokerage, Miscibility, and the Spread of Contention,’ Mobilization, vol. 16, no. 1, 2011, pp. 11–24.
58.
Sean Scalmer (e.g.), ‘Translating Contention: Culture, History, and the Circulation of Collective Action,’ Alternatives, vol. 25, 2000, pp. 491–514; David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, ‘Alternative Types of Cross-National Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena’, in Donatella della Porta , Hanspeter Kriesi , and Dieter Rucht, eds., Social Movements in a Globalizing World, London: Macmillan, 1999, pp. 23–39.
59.
See (e.g.) Sean Chabot, ‘Transnational Diffusion and the African-American Reinvention of the Gandhian Repertoire,’ Mobilization, vol. 5, 2000, pp. 201–216; Sean Scalmer , ‘The Labour of Diffusion: The Peace Pledge Union and the Adaptation of the Gandhian Repertoire,’ Mobilization , vol. 7, no. 3, 2002, pp. 269–286.
60.
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, rev. edn., London: Verso, 1981, pp. 80–81; Scalmer, ‘Translating Contention,’ p. 495.
61.
Kurt Weyland, ‘The Diffusion of Revolution: ‘1848’ in Europe and Latin America ,’ International Organisation, vol. 63, no. 3, July 2009, p. 392, p. 401.
62.
Sean Scalmer, ‘The Labor of Diffusion.’
63.
Rachel E. Stern, ‘Unpacking Adaptation: The Female Inheritance Movement in Hong Kong ,’ Mobilization, vol. 10, no. 3, 2005, p. 422.
64.
Sven Reichardt , Authentizität und Gemeinschaft. Linksalternatives Leben in den siebziger und frühen achtziger Jahren, Frankfurt/Main: suhrkamp, 2014; see also his earlier comparative work on Italian fascist and German National Socialist paramilitary organisations that already also looked at the transfer of practices: Sven Reichardt, Faschistische Kampfbünde, Cologne: Böhlau, 2002.
65.
Petra Terhoeven , Deutscher Herbst in Europa. Der Linksterrorismus der siebziger Jahre als transnationales Phänomen, Munich: de Gruyter, 2015.
66.
Axel Schildt and Detlef Siegfried , eds., Between Marx and Coca Cola. Youth Cultures in Changing European Societies, 1960–1980, Oxford : Berghahn Books, 2006.
67.
Knud Andresen and Bart van der Steen, eds., A European Youth Revolt: European Perspectives on Youth Protests and Social Movements in the 1980s, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.
68.
Traugott , The Insurgent Barricade; Scalmer, Gandhi in the West.
69.
Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism.
70.
Ibid., pp. 53–54.
71.
Ibid., p. 56. Of course, as the editors would contend, the reverse is also perfectly possible, that is, a ‘bird of passage’ transforming itself into a ‘nesting bird.’
72.
Conny Roggeband, ‘Translators and Transformers: International Inspiration and Exchange in Social Movements,’ Social Movement Studies, vol. 6, no. 3, December 2007, p. 249.
73.
J.P. Nettl, ‘The German Social Democratic Party, 1890–1914, as a Political Model,’ Past and Present, vol. 30, 1965, pp. 65–95.
74.
Stefan Berger , ‘Labour Movements ,’ in Berger and Nehring, Social Movements.
75.
Seonjoo Park , ‘Transpacific Feminism : Writing Women’s Movement from a Transnational Perspective,’ in Berger and Nehring, eds., Social Movements.
76.
Dipesh Chakrabarty , Provincialising Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 8.
77.
Thomas Bender, A Nation Among Nations: America’s Place in World History, New York: Hill and Wang, 2006; Rethinking American History in a Global Age, Thomas Bender, ed., Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
78.
Xupeng Zhang, ‘In and Out of the West: On the Past, Present and Future of Chinese Historical Theory,’ History and Theory, vol. 54, no. 4, 2015, pp. 46–63; Xupeng Zhang, ‘National Narratives in Chinese Global History Writing,’ in Stefan Berger , Nicola Brauch, and Chris Lorenz, eds., Handbook of Historical Narratives, Munich: DeGruter, 2018, forthcoming.
79.
Catherine Hall , ‘What Did A British World Mean to the British? Reflections on the Nineteenth Century,’ in Phillip Buckner and R. Douglas Francis, eds., Rediscovering the British World, Calgary : University of Calgary Press, 2005, p. 22.
80.
J.G.A. Pocock, ‘British History: A Plea for a New Subject,’ Journal of Modern History, vol. 47, no. 4, December 1975, pp. 601–621.
81.
A point made in Phillip Buckner and R. Douglas Francis, ‘Introduction,’ in Rediscovering the British World, Phillip Buckner and R. Douglas Francis, eds., Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2005, pp. 9–10.
82.
David Armitage, ‘Greater Britain: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis?,’ American Historical Review, vol. 104, no. 2, April 1999, pp. 427–445.
83.
For an influential and trenchant statement: Chakrabaty, Provincializing Europe.
84.
Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds (e.g.), Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the Question of Racial Equality, Carlton, Victoria : Melbourne University Press, 2008.
85.
For a critique of this exclusion: Marilyn Lake, ‘British World or New World? Anglo-Saxonism and Australian Engagement with America’, History Australia, vol. 10, no. 3, December 2013, pp. 36–50.
86.
For an exciting application of this approach: James Belich, Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of the Anglo-World, 1783–1939, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
87.
See, for example: Tony Ballantyne , ‘Rereading the Archives and Opening Up the Nation State: Colonial Knowledge in South Asia (and Beyond),’ in Antoinette Burton, ed., After the Imperial Turn: Thinking With and Through the Nation, Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2003; Alan Lester , ‘British Settler Discourse and the Circuits of Empire,’ History Workshop Journal, vol. 54, 2002, pp. 24–48.
88.
For example: Scalmer , Gandhi in the West; David Hardiman, Gandhi: In His Time and Ours, New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2005; Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012.
89.
James Curran and Stuart Ward , The Unknown Nation: Australia after Empire, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2010.
90.
Catherine Hall , Civilising Subjects. Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867, Oxford : Wiley, 2002.
91.
Neil Evans, ‘“A World Empire, Sea-Girt”: The British Empire , State and Nations, 1780–1914,’ in Stefan Berger and Alexei Miller, eds., Nationalizing Empires, Budapest: Central European University, 2015, pp. 31–98.
92.
On the habit of metropolitan scholars to grant peripheral locations less attention in the development of social and political theory, see Raewyn Connell, Southern Theory: The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science, Cambridge: Polity, 2007.
93.
See, for example, Ann Curthoys and Marilyn Lake, eds., Connected Worlds: History in Trans-National Perspective, Canberra: ANU Press, 2005; Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the Question of Racial Equality, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008; Sean Scalmer , Dissent Events: Protest, the Media, and the Political Gimmick in Australia, Sydney: UNSW Press, 2002; Neville Kirk, Transnational Radicalism and the Connected Lives of Tom Mann and Robert Samuel Ross, Liverpool : Liverpool University Press, 2017.
94.
A case argued in Sean Scalmer, ‘The History of Social Movements in Australia,’ in The History of Social Movements in Global Perspective: A Survey, Stefan Berger and Holger Nehring, eds., London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017, pp. 325–352.
95.
Calhoun, Roots of Radicalism.
96.
Eric Turner, ‘New Movements, Digital Revolution and Social Movement Theory,’ in Peace Studies, vol. 25, no. 3, 2013, pp. 376–383. See also Paolo Gerbaudo, Tweets and the Streets: Social Media and Contemporary Activism, London: Pluto Press, 2012.
97.
Louis Filler, The Muckrackers, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993.
98.
Michael Schudson, The Rise of the Right to Know: Politics and the Culture of Transparency 1945–1975, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015.

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Stefan Berger
University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Sean Scalmer

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Stefan Berger
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Sean Scalmer

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Berger, S., Scalmer, S. (2018). The Transnational Activist: An Introduction. In: Berger, S., Scalmer, S. (eds) The Transnational Activist. Palgrave Studies in the History of Social Movements. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66206-0_1

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