Abstract
This chapter discusses the role of antepartum fetal surveillance in the management of diabetic pregnancy. The historical challenges in improving neonatal outcomes are discussed. The problem of stillbirth in diabetic pregnancy, causes, and timing is reviewed as well as possible prevention strategies. The development of antepartum fetal surveillance testing as a means of determining appropriate timing of delivery to prevent stillbirth and reducing iatrogenic prematurity is reviewed. The use of various methods of fetal antepartum testing are discussed in regard to the use of general and diabetic pregnancies: fetal nonstress testing, biophysical profile, modified biophysical profile, umbilical artery Doppler, and biochemical screening. Current recommendations for applying antepartum testing schemes in clinical management of diabetic pregnancies are reviewed.
References
Williams JW. Obstetrics. New York: D. Appleton; 1903.
Skipper E. Diabetes mellitus and pregnancy. A clinical and analytical study (with special observations upon thirty-three cases). Q J Med. 1933;2:353–80.
White P. Pregnancy complicating diabetes. Am J Med. 1949;7:609–16.
White P. Pregnancy and diabetes, the annual review. Diabetes. 1958;7(6):494–5.
Dudley DJ. Diabetic-associated stillbirth: incidence, pathophysiology, and prevention. Clin Perinatol. 2007;34(4):611–26.
Mondestrin MA. Birth weight and fetal death in the United States: the effect of maternal diabetes during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;187:922.
Little SE, Zera CA. A multi-state analysis of early-term delivery trends and the association with term stillbirth. Obstet Gynecol. 2015;126(6):1138–45.
Starikov R, Dudley D. Stillbirth in the pregnancy complicated by diabetes. Curr Diab Rep. 2015;15(3):11.
Reddy UM, Laughon SK. Prepregnancy risk factors for antepartum stillbirth in the United States. Obstet Gynecol. 2010;116(5):1119–26.
Gardosi J, Madurasinghe V. Maternal and fetal risk factors for stillbirth: population based study. BMJ. 2013;346(1):f108–82.
Bradley RJ, Brudenell JM. Fetal acidosis and hyperlacticaemia diagnosed by cordocentesis in pregnancies. Diabet Med. 1991;8(5):464–8.
Pedersen J. The pregnant diabetic and her newborn: problems and management. Chicago: Williams & Wilkins; 1967.
Philipps AF, Porte PJ. Effects of chronic fetal hyperglycemia upon oxygen consumption in the ovine uterus and conceptus. J Clin Invest. 1984;74:279–86.
Datta SA. Acid-base status in diabetic mothers and their infants following general or spinal anesthesia for cesarean section. Anesthesiology. 1977;3:272–6.
Buescher U, Hertwig K. Erythropoietin in amniotic fluid as a marker of chronic fetal hypoxia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1998;60:257–63.
Teramo K, Kari MA. High amniotic fluid erythropoietin levels are associated with an increased frequency of fetal and neonatal morbidity in type 1 diabetic pregnancies. Diabetologia. 2004;47:1695–703.
Widness JA, Teramo KA. Direct relationship of antepartum glucose control and fetal erythropoietin in human type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetic pregnancy. Diabetologia. 1990;33:378–83.
Lauenborg J, Mathiesen E. Audit on stillbirths in women with pregestational type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:1385–9.
Halse KG, Lindegaard ML. Increased plasma pro-B-type natriuretic peptide in infants of women with type 1 diabetes. Clin Chem. 2005;5:2296–302.
Teramo KA. Obstetric problems in diabetic pregnancy—the role of fetal hypoxia. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;24(4):663–71.
Huang DY, Usher RH. Determinants of unexplained antepartum fetal deaths. Obstet Gynecol. 2000;95(2):215–21.
Mashini IS, Fadel HE. Indications for and timing of delivery in diabetic pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1985;153(7):759–66.
Teramo K, Hiilesmaa VK. Amniotic fluid and cord plasma erythropoietin levels in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia, pregnancy-induced hypertension and chronic hypertension. J Perinat Med. 2004;32(3):240–7.
Miehle K, Stepan H. Leptin, adiponectin and other adipokines in gestational diabetes mellitus and pre-eclampsia. Clin Endocrinol. 2012;76(1):2–11.
Vintzileos AM, Gaffney SE. The relationship between fetal biophysical profile and cord pH in patients undergoing cesarean section before the onset of labor. Obstet Gynecol. 1987;70(2):196–201.
Moore TR, Piacquadio K. A prospective evaluation of fetal movement screening to reduce the incidence of antepartum fetal death. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;160(5):1075–80.
Frøen JF, Heazell AE. Fetal movement assessment. Semin Perinatol. 2008;32(4):243–6.
Lagrew DC Jr. The contraction stress test. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1995;38(1):11–25.
Freeman RK, Anderson G. A prospective multi-institutional study of antepartum fetal heart rate monitoring: II. Contraction stress test versus nonstress test for primary surveillance. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982;143(7):778–81.
Devoe LD. Antenatal fetal assessment: contraction stress test, nonstress test, vibroacoustic stimulation, amniotic fluid volume, biophysical profile, and modified biophysical profile—an overview. Semin Perinatol. 2008;32(4):247–52.
American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Practice bulletin no. 145: antepartum fetal surveillance. Obstet Gynecol. 2014;124(1):182–90.
Clark SL, Sabey P. Nonstress testing with acoustic stimulation and amniotic fluid volume assessment: 5973 tests without unexpected fetal death. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;160(3):694–7.
Smith CV, Phelan JP. Fetal acoustic stimulation testing: II. A randomized clinical comparison with the nonstress test. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986;155(1):131–4.
Cousins LM, Poeltler DM. Nonstress testing at ≤ 32.0 weeks’ gestation: a randomized trial comparing different assessment criteria. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;207(4):311.
Girz BA, Divon MY, Merkatz IR. Sudden fetal death in women with well-controlled, intensively monitored gestational diabetes. J Perinatol. 1992;12(3):229–33.
Barrett JM, Salyer SL. The nonstress test: an evaluation of 1000 patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1981;141(2):153–7.
Pazos R, Vuolo K. Association of spontaneous fetal heart rate decelerations during antepartum nonstress testing and intrauterine growth retardation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1982;144(5):574–7.
Manning FA, Morrison I. Fetal biophysical profile scoring: selective use of the nonstress test. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1987;156(3):709–12.
Miller DA, Rabello YA. The modified biophysical profile: antepartum testing in the 1990s. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;174(3):812–7.
Nageotte MP, Towers CV. Perinatal outcome with the modified biophysical profile. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994;170(5):1672–6.
Eller DP, Stramm SL. The effect of maternal intravenous glucose administration on fetal activity. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1992;167(4):1071–4.
Vintzileos AM, Campbell WA. The use and misuse of the fetal biophysical profile. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1987;156(3):527–33.
Biggio JR, Wenstrom KD. Hydramnios prediction of adverse perinatal outcome. Obstet Gynecol. 1999;94(5):773–7.
Pilliod RA, Page JM. The risk of fetal death in nonanomalous pregnancies affected by polyhydramnios. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;213(3):410–e1.
Salvesen DR, Freeman J. Prediction of fetal acidaemia in pregnancies complicated by maternal diabetes mellitus by biophysical profile scoring and fetal heart rate monitoring. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1993;100(3):227–33.
Johnson JM, Lange IR. Biophysical profile scoring in the management of the diabetic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1988;72(6):841–6.
Kjos SL, Leung A. Antepartum surveillance in diabetic pregnancies: predictors of fetal distress in labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;173(5):1532–9.
Kingdom JC, Burrell SJ. Pathology and clinical implications of abnormal umbilical artery Doppler waveforms. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1997;9(4):271–86.
Alfirevic Z, Stampalija T. Fetal and umbilical Doppler ultrasound in high-risk pregnancies. Cochrane Libr. 2010;1(1):CD007529.
Berkley E, Chauhan SP. Doppler assessment of the fetus with intrauterine growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;206(4):300–8.
Bracero LA, Figueroa R, Byrne DW, Han HJ. Comparison of umbilical Doppler velocimetry, nonstress testing, and biophysical profile in pregnancies complicated by diabetes. J Ultrasound Med. 1996;15(4):301–8.
Bracero LA, Haberman S. Maternal glycemic control and umbilical artery Doppler velocimetry. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2002;12(5):342–8.
Wong SF, Chan FY. Use of umbilical artery Doppler velocimetry in the monitoring of pregnancy in women with pre-existing diabetes. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2003;43(4):302–6.
Reece EA, Homko CJ. Doppler velocimetry and the assessment of fetal well-being in normal and diabetic pregnancies. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1994;4(6):508–14.
Gutaj P, Wender-Ozegowska E. Diagnosis and management of IUGR in pregnancy complicated by type 1 diabetes mellitus. Curr Diab Rep. 2016;16(5):1–9.
Landon MB, Vickers S. Fetal surveillance in pregnancy complicated by diabetes mellitus: is it necessary? J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2002;12(6):413–6.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice bulletin no. 134: fetal growth restriction. Obstet Gynecol. 2013;121(5):1122.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rappaport, V. (2018). Antepartum Testing. In: Moore, L. (eds) Diabetes in Pregnancy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65518-5_17
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65518-5_17
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-65517-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-65518-5
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)