Perceiving Each Other

Hellmüller, Sara

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65301-3_4

Sara Hellmüller³

Part of the book series: Rethinking Political Violence ((RPV))

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Abstract

This chapter analyzes the interaction between local and international peacebuilding actors in Ituri. It demonstrates that their perceptions of their own and each other’s resources, capacities and legitimacy differed. This had three consequences. First, international peacebuilding actors excluded local peacebuilding actors from strategy-making and thus initially neglected the local priority of social cohesion. Second, international peacebuilding actors only included local peacebuilding actors in the implementation stage of their statebuilding programs, which meant that local actors could only marginally adapt them to local realities. Third, when international peacebuilding actors took up the priority of social cohesion after the end of the transition marked by the elections in 2006, they crowded out and duplicated local peacebuilding actors’ work, rather than complemented it. Thus, despite the fact that both local and international peacebuilding actors’ priorities were relevant, their lack of cooperation left important gaps.

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Notes

1.
The shift in focus of international peacebuilding actors towards local conflicts will be explained in this chapter.
2.
See Hellmüller (2014a) for an earlier discussion of this topic.
3.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, UN and international organization representatives (national and international staff), Ituri and Kinshasa, 2011–2013.
4.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, UN and international organization representatives (national and international staff), Ituri and Kinshasa, 2011–2013.
5.
Interview #5 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #17 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011.
6.
Available from UNDP’s DRC Funding and Delivery webpage at http://www.cd.undp.org/content/rdc/fr/home/operations/funding_delivery/, last consulted April 21, 2017.
7.
Available from UNDP’s DRC Funding and Delivery webpage at http://www.cd.undp.org/content/rdc/fr/home/operations/funding_delivery/, last consulted April 21, 2017.
8.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011; Interview #2 with professor, Bunia, 2011; FGD #3 with professor and local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #39 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #95 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
9.
Interview #8 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #15 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011.
10.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011.
11.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
12.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011.
13.
Interview #17 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #26 with external expert, phone, 2012; Interview #28 with professor, Geneva, 2012; Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012.
14.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
15.
Even though the ‘Pooled Fund’ was created in response to the ‘Humanitarian Action Plan,’ its activities also encompassed peacebuilding (e.g., education and reintegration of child soldiers).
16.
Interview #12 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #18 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2011; FGD #23 with donor representatives, Kinshasa, 2011.
17.
Interview #46 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012.
18.
Interview #18 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #20 with local peacebuilding actor, Mahagi, 2011.
19.
Interview #112 with international organization representative (international staff), phone, 2013.
20.
Interview #27 with external expert, phone, 2012.
21.
Interview #44 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012.
22.
Interview #14 with district authority, Bunia, 2011; FGD #40 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2012.
23.
For instance, to be eligible for ‘Pooled Fund’ funding, peacebuilding organizations had to complete an in-depth capacity assessment (OCHA/UNDP 2011, 13). Once an organization was judged eligible, it had to undergo a risk assessment to reveal potential institutional, administrative and financial weaknesses. Local NGOs were considered a higher risk than international ones: in 2011, this concerned 44 out of 94 local NGOs (46 percent) and only 5 out of 63 international ones (7 percent) (OCHA/UNDP 2011, 13). The generated risk factor determined the frequency of required reports and of monitoring visits by evaluators.
24.
Interview #18 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2011; FGD #40 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2012; Interview #54 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
25.
Interview #112 with international organization representative (international staff), phone, 2013.
26.
FGD #40 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2012; Interview #125 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2013.
27.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors and UN representatives, Ituri, 2011–2013.
28.
Interview #38 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
29.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
30.
Interview #2 with professor, Bunia, 2011; FGD #3 with professor and local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #4 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011.
31.
Interview #36 with local peacebuilding actor, Nyankunde, 2012.
32.
The MONUSCO recreation house is a complex including a restaurant, gym, tennis court and soccer pitch.
33.
Interview #20 with local peacebuilding actor, Mahagi, 2011.
34.
Interviews, FGDs and informal discussions with district authorities, professors and local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
35.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011.
36.
Interview #15 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; FGD #40 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2012.
37.
FGD #9 with district authorities, Bunia, 2011; Interview #20 with local peacebuilding actor, Mahagi, 2011.
38.
Interview #37 with district authority, Bunia, 2012; FGD #53 with UN representatives (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Informal discussion #131 with international organization representative (international staff), Bunia, 2013.
39.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
40.
Available from Oxford Dictionaries at www.oxforddictionaries.com, last consulted April 21, 2017.
41.
Available from Oxford Dictionaries at www.oxforddictionaries.com, last consulted April 21, 2017.
42.
Interviews with UN and international organization representatives (international staff), Ituri and Kinshasa, 2011–2013.
43.
Interview #12 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #58 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
44.
Interview #2 with professor, Bunia, 2011.
45.
Interview #45 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012.
46.
Interview #5 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Informal discussion #114 with professor, Bunia, 2013.
47.
Interview #58 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
48.
Interview #46 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #105 with UN representative (international staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
49.
Interview #16 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2011.
50.
Interview #54 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
51.
See also discussion about local ownership in Chapter 2.
52.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
53.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
54.
Interview #19 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011.
55.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
56.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011.
57.
Interview #95 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
58.
Interview #18 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #93 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #95 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
59.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
60.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
61.
Interview #19 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011.
62.
Informal discussion #131 with international organization representative (international staff), Bunia, 2013.
63.
Interview #26 with external expert, phone, 2012; Interview #27 with external expert, phone, 2012.
64.
Interview #26 with external expert, phone, 2012; Interview #38 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #44 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012; Interview #98 with UN representative (national staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
65.
Interview #54 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
66.
Interview #38 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #44 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #58 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #127 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2013.
67.
Interview #125 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2013.
68.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011.
69.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011.
70.
Interview #17 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #26 with external expert, phone, 2012; Interview #28 with professor, Geneva, 2012; Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012; Informal discussion #133 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2012–2013.
71.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011; Interview #21 with local peacebuilding actor, Mahagi, 2011; Interview #36 with local peacebuilding actor, Nyankunde, 2012.
72.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
73.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011.
74.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011; Interview #68 with local peacebuilding actor, Kpandroma, 2012; Interview #89 with local chief, Ituri, 2012.
75.
Interview #2 with professor, Bunia, 2011.
76.
Interview #97 with local peacebuilding actor, Kinshasa, 2012.
77.
Interview #90 with local chief, Ituri, 2012.
78.
Informal discussion #133 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2012–2013.
79.
FGD #40 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2012.
80.
Informal discussion #132 with international organization representative (national staff), Bunia, 2013.
81.
Interview #54 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
82.
Interview #2 with professor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #38 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
83.
See Hellmüller (2014b) for a preliminary discussion of some of the issues mentioned in this part of the chapter.
84.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011.
85.
Interview #51 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #105 with UN representative (international staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
86.
Interview #11 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #16 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2011; FGD #23 with donor representatives, Kinshasa, 2011; Interview #46 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #51 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012.
87.
Informal discussion #131 with international organization representative (international staff), Bunia, 2013.
88.
Interview #51 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #105 with UN representative (international staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
89.
Interview #11 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2011; FGD #53 with UN representatives (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #58 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
90.
For instance the Réseau des Femmes pour le Développement/Women Network for Development, the Conseil Local des Organisations Non-Gouvernementales/Local Council of NGOs, the Réseau des Associations des Droits de l’Homme de l’Ituri/Network of Human Rights Associations in Ituri and the Programme de Paix et de Développement en Ituri/Peace and Development Program in Ituri.
91.
Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012.
92.
Beyond the situation in the DRC, there are many calls for international peacebuilding actors to leave the ‘bubble’ in which they are often said to find themselves when being deployed to a conflict context and which separates them physically and mentally from the host populations and local peacebuilding actors (Smirl 2008, 243; Williams 2010, 69; Autesserre 2014, 183–185).
93.
If social cohesion was addressed, it was with regard to belligerents focusing on reconciliation between former warlords. See Gouvernement de la RDC et al. (2004) that illustrates this very well.
94.
The fact that this mandate reaches back to independence reflects political interests. The government and the main rebel group members would not have accepted inquiries into what they had done while what had happened under Mobutu remained uncovered (Davis and Hayner 2009, 21–22).
95.
Interview #43 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #54 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012; Interview #100 with local peacebuilding actor, Kinshasa, 2012; Interview #106 with national elite actor, Kinshasa, 2012.
96.
UNDP for instance had only a small project with the TRC (Kahorha 2009) while providing large-scale support to the electoral process (Faubert 2006, 3, 4). The priorities were also visible in that the funding for the ‘Independent Electoral Commission’ was much higher than the one for the TRC (FGD #24 with international organization representatives (national staff), Kinshasa, 2011; Interview #42 with professor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #43 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #54 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012; Interview #98 with UN representative (national staff), Kinshasa, 2012).
97.
Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012; Interview #98 with UN representative (national staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
98.
Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012.
99.
Interview #43 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012; Interview #98 with UN representative (national staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
100.
Interview #15 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #43 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012; Interview #98 with UN representative (national staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
101.
FGD #22 with international organization representatives (national staff), Kinshasa, 2011.
102.
FGD #22 with international organization representatives (national staff), Kinshasa, 2011; Interview #43 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012; Interview #98 with UN representative (national staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
103.
FGD #24 with international organization representatives (national staff), Kinshasa, 2011; Interview #96 with professor, Kinshasa, 2012; Interview #98 with UN representative (national staff), Kinshasa, 2012; Interview #106 with national elite actor, Kinshasa, 2012.
104.
Interview #15 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #91 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
105.
Interview #19 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #27 with external expert, phone, 2012; Interview #91 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
106.
Interview #25 with external expert, email, 2011; Interview #49 with district authority, Bunia, 2012.
107.
Interview #15 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011.
108.
Interview #19 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #54 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #93 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
109.
They had an average budget of US$19,270 (Samset and Madore 2006, v).
110.
Interview #38 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
111.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
112.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
113.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
114.
FGD #22 with international organization representatives (national staff), Kinshasa, 2011; Interview #58 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
115.
Interview #100 with local peacebuilding actor, Kinshasa, 2012.
116.
Interview #21 with local peacebuilding actor, Mahagi, 2011.
117.
Informal discussions #121 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011–2013.
118.
Interview #19 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011.
119.
As mentioned above, the third DDR phase in Ituri (2007–2009) attempted to change this by engaging in vast sensitization programs and by pledging that 30 percent of the benefits were to be given to the communities (UNDP 2009, 10–11).
120.
Informal discussion #132 with international organization representative (national staff), Bunia, 2013.
121.
In the third DDR phase in Ituri (2007–2009), UNDP had a micro-project approach, meaning that local peacebuilding actors could apply to implement internationally funded DDR projects. Therefore, more than 75 percent of UNDP’s implementing partners were local peacebuilding actors, since the importance of a durable reinsertion process and local peacebuilding actors’ role in it was increasingly recognized (UNDP 2009, 7).
122.
Interview #21 with local peacebuilding actor, Mahagi, 2011.
123.
Interview #21 with local peacebuilding actor, Mahagi, 2011.
124.
Interview #127 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2013.
125.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011; Interview #57 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
126.
Interview #57 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
127.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
128.
Interview #28 with professor, Geneva, 2012.
129.
Interview #72 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012.
130.
Interviews and FGDs with local population groups and local chiefs, Ituri, 2011–2013.
131.
Interview #54 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #107 with national politician, Kinshasa, 2012.
132.
As documented in ICG (2006, 1), “These were within a one-party system and essentially symbolic, with voters mostly able only to approve or reject one list. The winners were inevitably party cadres with little accountability or interest in change. Mobutu won the presidency in 1970, 1977 and 1984 with over 99 percent approval.”
133.
Interview #54 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
134.
In Ituri, 80 percent of the registered citizens voted for Joseph Kabila in 2006 (Eastern Congo Initiative 2011, 232).
135.
Interview #54 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
136.
FGD #22 with international organization representatives (national staff), Kinshasa, 2011; Interview #107 with national politician, Kinshasa, 2012.
137.
This article was actually never written, but imaginarily added to the other fourteen articles in the constitution under Mobutu. It is, however, referred to widely in the population and often said to “represent the essence of thirty-two years of Mobutu dictatorship” (Jourdan 2004, 170).
138.
Interview #6 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #20 with local peacebuilding actor, Mahagi, 2011; Interview #48 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #112 with international organization representative (international staff), phone, 2013.
139.
Interview #97 with local peacebuilding actor, Kinshasa, 2012.
140.
FGD #22 with international organization representatives (national staff), Kinshasa, 2011.
141.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
142.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
143.
Interview #5 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011.
144.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011; Interview #2 with professor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #11 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #36 with local peacebuilding actor, Nyankunde, 2012.
145.
Interview #112 with international organization representative (international staff), phone, 2013.
146.
Interview #6 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #56 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
147.
Interview #44 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #46 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #105 with UN representative (international staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
148.
Interview #10 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #47 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #105 with UN representative (international staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
149.
Interview #12 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #18 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #93 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
150.
Informal discussion #122 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2013; Informal discussions #124 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012–2013.
151.
Internal document of international NGO, Bunia, 2013.
152.
Interviews and FGDs with local peacebuilding actors, Ituri, 2011–2013.
153.
Interview #127 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2013.
154.
Interview #11 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2011; FGD #23 with donor representatives, Kinshasa, 2011; Interview #112 with international organization representative (international staff), phone, 2013.
155.
Interview #6 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011.
156.
Interview #125 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2013.
157.
Interview #60 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #91 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #92 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012; Interview #93 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #95 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2013.
158.
Informal discussion #131 with international organization representative (international staff), Bunia, 2013.
159.
Interview #20 with local peacebuilding actor, Mahagi, 2011.
160.
Interviews with UN and international organization representatives, Ituri and Kinshasa, 2011–2013.
161.
Interview #12 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #14 with district authority, Bunia, 2011; Interview #21 with local peacebuilding actor, Mahagi, 2011; Interview #93 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
162.
FGD #40 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2012; Interview #46 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #105 with UN representative (international staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
163.
FGD #1 with local peacebuilding actors, Bunia, 2011; Interview #4 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #19 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011; Interview #86 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2012.
164.
Interview #4 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2011.
165.
Interview #105 with UN representative (international staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
166.
Interview #58 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012; Informal discussion #131 with international organization representative (international staff), Bunia, 2013.
167.
Interview #95 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
168.
Interview #37 with district authority, Bunia, 2012; Interview #125 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2013.
169.
Interview #127 with local peacebuilding actor, Bunia, 2013.
170.
Interview #11 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2011; Interview #46 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2012; Interview #105 with UN representative (international staff), Kinshasa, 2012.
171.
Interview #11 with UN representative (international staff), Bunia, 2011.
172.
Interview #95 with UN representative (national staff), Bunia, 2012.
173.
Interview #73 with international organization representative (national staff), Tchele, 2012.

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Hellmüller, S. (2018). Perceiving Each Other. In: The Interaction Between Local and International Peacebuilding Actors . Rethinking Political Violence. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65301-3_4

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65301-3_4
Published: 23 December 2017
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