Reshaping Transatlantic Energy Relations: Italy, the United States and Arab Producers During the 1970s

Bini, Elisabetta

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65163-7_8

Reshaping Transatlantic Energy Relations: Italy, the United States and Arab Producers During the 1970s

Elisabetta Bini⁵

Chapter
First Online: 11 November 2017

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Part of the book series: Security, Conflict and Cooperation in the Contemporary World ((SCCCW))

Abstract

This chapter examines Italy’s energy policies between the second half of the 1960s and the mid-1970s. Based on new archival sources from the USA and Italy, it argues that during and after the Six Day War and in the context of the 1973 oil ‘shock’, the Italian government, particularly its foreign minister Aldo Moro, linked in new and original ways the changes taking place in the Mediterranean with the process of détente. Moro argued that the forms of multipolarism and dialogue promoted by détente should be extended to the Mediterranean, and lead the European Economic Community (EEC) to support the establishment of new, more equitable relations between oil producers and oil consumers. A series of domestic and international factors, however, limited Moro’s politics. While Italy remained economically too weak and politically too unstable, the EEC was too divided to promote a coherent policy in the Mediterranean. Most importantly, in the first half of the 1970s the US administration ‘contained’ Italian and Western European efforts to redefine relations between the Atlantic bloc, the EEC and the Arab world. It strongly criticized Italy’s effort to pursue an autonomous policy in the Mediterranean, and interpreted European positions as a betrayal of the Atlantic Alliance and of the the USA’s primacy in it. In the context of the 1973 oil ‘shock’, the Italian government abandoned its wider interpretation of Mediterranean politics. While it continued to pursue a pro-Arab policy, it also realigned itself with US positions. In this framework, Italy’s energy policies limited themselves to the establishment of bilateral relations with single producers, including countries such as Libya and Algeria.

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Notes

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8.
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9.
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11.
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12.
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13.
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14.
Carla Meneguzzi Rostagni , ‘La politica estera italiana e la distensione. Una proposta di lettura’, in Nazione, interdipendenza, integrazione. Le relazioni internazionali dell’Italia (1917–1989), eds. Federico Romero and Antonio Varsori (Roma: Carocci, 2001), 1: 355–371; Guido Formigoni , ‘L’Italia nel sistema internazionale degli anni Settanta: spunti per riconsiderare la crisi’, in L’Italia repubblicana, 271–298.
15.
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16.
Giuliano Garavini , ‘Moro, la Comunità Europea, la distensione nel Mediterraneo’, in Aldo Moro nell’Italia contemporanea, eds. Francesco Perfetti et al. (Firenze: Le Lettere, 2011), 585–606; Italo Garzia , Luciano Monzali and Federico Imperato (eds.), Aldo Moro , l’Italia repubblicana e i popoli del Mediterraneo (Nardò: Salento Books, 2013); Alfonso Alfonsi (ed.), Aldo Moro nella dimensione internazionale: dalla memoria alla storia (Milano: Franco Angeli, 2013).
17.
Calandri, ‘Il Mediterraneo nella politica estera italiana’, 368; Renato Moro and Daniele Mezzana (eds.), Una vita, un paese. Aldo Moro e l’Italia del Novecento (Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2014); Giuliano Garavini , ‘Moro, la Comunità europea, la distensione nel Mediterraneo’, in Aldo Moro nell’Italia contemporanea, 589.
18.
Pia G. Celozzi Baldelli (ed.), La politica estera italiana negli anni della Grande Distensione (1968–1975) (Roma: Aracne, 2009).
19.
Nicolas Badalassi , ‘Sea and Détente in Helsinki: The Mediterranean Stake of the CSCE, 1972–1975’, and Guia Migani , ‘Rediscovering the Mediterranean: First Tests of Coordination among the Nine?, in Détente in Cold War Europe, 61–74 and 193–210; Jeffrey James Byrne , ‘Our Own Special Brand of Socialism: Algeria and the Contest of Modernities in the 1960s’, Diplomatic History 33, no. 3 (2009), 427–447.
20.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Estero, Osservatori Commerciali, b.422, f.1F7F.
21.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Servizio Pianificazione Energia ed Idrocarburi, b.441; ASE, Fondo ENI, Direzione estero, b.293, f.38.
22.
On international reactions to ENI’s decision not to join the Tehran–Tripoli agreements: ASE, Fondo ENI, Direzione Estera, b.441, f.1FBD; Francesco Petrini , ‘La crisi energetica del 1973. Le multinazionali del petrolio e la fine dell’età dell’oro (nero)’, Contemporanea 15, no. 3 (2012): 445–473; Louis Turner , Oil Companies in the International System (London: George Allen & Unwin Publishers Ltd., 1978). On ENI’s appeal to oil producers: Bini, La potente benzina italiana; Elisabetta Bini , ‘Fueling Modernization from the Atlantic to the Third World: Oil and Development in ENI’s International Policies, 1950s–1960s’, in L’Europe et la question énergétique. Les années 1960/1980, eds. Alain Beltran , Eric Boussière and Giuliano Garavini (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2016), 41–59.
23.
Silvio Labbate , ‘L’Italia e l’ENI di fronte alle crisi petrolifere degli anni Settanta’, Nuova Rivista Storica 98, no. 2 (2014): 477–554; Ilaria Tremolada , ‘L’ENI in Arabia Saudita. Dalla concessione mineraria alle conseguenze dello shock petrolifero del 1973’, Nuova Rivista Storica 98, no. 2 (2014): 567–601; Massimo Bucarelli , ‘L’ENI e il petrolio dell’Iraq negli anni Settanta. Tra crisi energetiche e nazionalismo arabo’, Nuova Rivista Storica 98, no. 2 (2014): 667–731.
24.
Archivio Centrale dello Stato (hereafter ACS), Archivio Aldo Moro (AAM), b.94; Elisabetta Bini, ‘A Challenge to Cold War Oil Politics? The US and Italy’s Relations with the Soviet Union, 1958–1969’ in Cold War Energy: A Transnational History of Soviet Oil and Gas, ed. Jeronim Perovic (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2017), 201–230; Per Högselius, Red Gas: Russia and the Origins of European Energy Dependence (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
25.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Presidenza, Raffaele Girotti , b.76, f.3369; ASE, Fondo ENI, Struttura organizzativa, Presidenza, b.262, f.4819. Ekaterina Snegur , Questioni amministrative della collaborazione russo-italiana nel settore metanifero (1958–1969), Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’, 2013.
26.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Direzione Estera, b.92, ff.2231 and 2232.
27.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Direzione Estera, b.202, f.1713; ASE, Fondo ENI, Segreteria del Presidente, Eugenio Cefis, b.28, f. E85; ASE, Fondo ENI, Direzione Estera, b.203, f.1716. Arturo Varvelli, L’Italia e l’ascesa di Gheddafi. La cacciata degli italiani, le armi e il petrolio (Milano: Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2009); Massimiliano Cricco , ‘L’ENI in Libia. Dal trattato italo-libico del 1956 ai negoziati degli anni Settanta’, Nuova Rivista Storica 98, no. 2 (2014): 555–566.
28.
National Archives and Records Administration, College Mark, MD (hereafter NARA), Nixon Presidential Materials, NSC Files, Box 250, Agency Files, National Energy Office, vol. I, March 1972–Feb 1973, Memorandum from Acting Secretary of State Irwin to President Nixon, 6 October 1972; NARA, RG59, Central Files 1970–1973, PET 3 OPEC, Intelligence Note Prepared in the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, 27 June 1972; James Bamberg , British Petroleum and Global Oil, 1950–1975: The Challenge of Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
29.
Massimiliano Cricco , Il petrolio dei Senussi. Stati Uniti e Gran Bretagna in Libia dall’indipendenza a Gheddafi (1949–1973) (Firenze: Edizioni Polistampa, 2002); Dirk Vandewalle , Libya Since Independence: Oil and State-Building (London: I.B. Tauris, 1998); Judith Gurney , Libya: The Political Economy of Oil (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
30.
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31.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Presidenza, Incarichi Speciali, b.73, f.2E92; ASE, Fondo ENI, Struttura organizzativa Presidenza, b.254; ASE, Fondo ENI, Direzione Estera, b.0076.
32.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Segreteria societaria, b.1, f.344F; ASE, Fondo ENI, Presidenza, Incarichi speciali, b.73; Miriam R. Lowi , Oil Wealth and the Poverty of Politics: Algeria Compared (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
33.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Direzione Estera, b.5; Ali Aissaoui , Algeria: The Political Economy of Oil and Gas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); Roberto Cantoni, Oil Exploration, Diplomacy, and Securuty in the Early Cold War: The Enemy Underground (London: Routledge, 2017).
34.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Struttura organizzativa Presidenza, b.44, f.15F0; ASE, Fondo ENI, Direzione Estera, b.5, f.7AB; Rosario Milano , ‘L’ENI e l’Algeria (1963–1973)’, in Aldo Moro , 498–533; Hocine Malti , Histoire secrète du pétrole Algérien (Paris: La Découverte, 2010).
35.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Struttura organizzativa, Presidenza, b.254, f.47D5; Milano, ‘L’ENI in Algeria’; Mark H. Hayes , ‘The Transmed and Maghreb Projects; Gas to Europe from North Africa’, in Natural Gas and Geopolitics. From 1970 to 2040, eds. David G. Victor , Amy M. Jaffe and Mark H. Hayes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 49–90.
36.
Keith Hamilton and Patrick Salmon (eds.), The Year of Europe: America, Europe and the Energy Crisis, 1972–1974 (London: Routledge, 2006); Matthias Schulz and Thomas A. Schwartz (eds.), The Strained Alliance: U.S.–European Relations from Nixon to Carter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Kathleen K. Burk and Melvyn Stokes (eds.), The United States and the European Alliance since 1945 (Oxford: Berg, 1999); Argyris Adrianopoulos , Western Europe and Kissinger’s Global Strategy (London: Macmillan Press, 1988); Robert Lifset (ed.), American Energy Policy in the 1970s (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014).
37.
Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (London: Phoenix Press, 1982), 149.
38.
Ibid.
39.
Kissinger, Years of Upheaval, 150; Umberto Gentiloni Silveri , L’Italia sospesa. La crisi degli anni Settanta vista da Washington (Torino: Einaudi, 2009); Valerio Bosco , L’amministrazione Nixon e l’Italia. Tra distensione europea e crisi mediterranee (1968–1975) (Roma: Eurilink, 2009); Lucrezia Cominelli , L’Italia sotto tutela. Stati Uniti, Europa e crisi italiana degli anni Settanta (Firenze: Le Monnier, 2014).
40.
Patrizia Battilani and Francesca Fauri, Mezzo secolo di economia italiana, 1945–2008 (Bologna: il Mulino, 2008); Augusto Graziani , ‘L’economia italiana e il suo inserimento internazionale’, in Storia dell’Italia repubblicana. L’Italia nella crisi mondiale. L’ultimo ventennio, ed. Francesco Barbagallo (Torino: Einaudi, 1996), 3:349–398; Adriana Castagnoli , La guerra fredda economica. Italia e Stati Uniti, 1947–1989 (Roma/Bari: Laterza, 2015).
41.
Magini, L’Italia e il petrolio.
42.
NARA, Nixon Presidential Materials Project, Presidential/HAK Memcons, ‘Memorandum of Conversation about US-European Relations’, 28 November 1973.
43.
NARA, Nixon Presidential Materials Project, Country Files, Europe, American Embassy Rome to Secretary of State, 8 November 1973; Caviglia and Cricco (eds.), La diplomazia italiana.
44.
Giuliano Garavini , ‘Moro, la Comunità Europea, la distensione nel Mediterraneo’; Emmanuel Mourlon-Druol and Federico Romero (eds.), International Summitry and Global Governance: The Rise of the G7 and the European Council, 1974–1991 (London: Routledge, 2013); Asaf Siniver , The October 1973 War: Politics, Diplomacy, Legacy (London: Hurst & Company, 2013).
45.
Kissinger, Years of Upheaval; Daniel J. Sargent , A Superpower Transformed: The Remaking of American Foreign Relations in the 1970s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015); Duccio Basosi , Finanza & Petrolio. Gli Stati Uniti, l’oro nero e l’economia politica internazionale (Milan: Studio LT2, 2012).
46.
NARA, Nixon Presidential Materials Project, Presidential/HAK Memcons, Memorandum of Conversation between Secretary of State Kissinger and Italian Foreign Minister Aldo Moro , 10 December 1973, quoted in Cominelli, L’Italia sotto tutela, 141; Mario Del Pero , The Eccentric Realist: Henry Kissinger and the Shaping of American Foreign Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010); Silvia Pierantonio , ‘The Year that Never Was’: 1973 and the Crisis between the United States and the European Community’, Journal of Transatlantic Studies 8, no. 2 (2010): 158–177.
47.
Record of conversation between the FCO secretary and the Algerian and Saudi Arabian ministers of petroleum, 28 November 1973, quoted in Giuliano Garavini and Francesco Petrini , ‘Continuity or Change? The 1973 Oil Crisis Reconsidered’, in Europe in the International Arena during the 1970s. Entering a Different World, eds. Antonio Varsori and Guia Migani (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2011), 218.
48.
Giuliano Garavini , ‘From Boumedienomics to Reaganomics: Algeria, OPEC, and the International Struggle for Economic Equality’, Humanity 6, no. 1 (2015): 79–92.
49.
ACS, AAM, b.31, ‘Discorso del ministro Moro alla Commissione Esteri del Senato’, 23 January 1974.
50.
ACS, AAM, b.139; ASE, Fondo ENI, Direzione Estera, b.203, f.1716; ASE, Fondo ENI, Struttura Organizzativa, Presidenza, b.202, f.4819; ‘L’Agip estenderà le ricerche in Libia di idrocarburi’, Il Sole 24 ore, 27 February 1974; Varvelli, L’Italia e l’ascesa di Gheddafi ; Dirk Vandewalle (ed.), Libya Since 1969: Qadhafi’s Revolution Revisited (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).
51.
NARA, CREST, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), A Briefing Book for the Washington Energy Conference, 4 February 1974; Henning Türk , ‘The Oil Crisis of 1973 as a Challenge to Multilateral Energy Cooperation among Western Industrialized Countries’, Historical Social Research 39, no. 4 (2014): 209–230.
52.
Labbate, Il governo dell’energia; Cominelli, L’Italia sotto tutela.
53.
ACS, AAM, b.36, Appunto MAE, 18 January 1974; ACS, AAM, b.31, Appunto del direttore generale degli Affari Politici del MAE, Roberto Ducci , per il ministro Moro, 13 January 1974.
54.
On France’s position: Aurélie Elisa Gfeller , Building a European Identity: France, the United States, and the Oil Shock, 1973–1974 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2012).
55.
FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. XXXVI, Energy Crisis, 1969–1974, Memorandum of Conversation, 9 February 1974, 879–880.
56.
Marcello Colitti , ENI. Cronache dall’interno di un’azienda (Rome: Egea, 2008), 158; ACS, AAM, b.36., Appunto MAE, Intervento dell’On. Ministro alla conferenza di Washington, 11 February 1974.
57.
ACS, AAM, b.158, Colloquio dell’On. Ministro con l’Ambasciatore Volpe, 29 March 1974.
58.
Colitti, ENI, 157–158.
59.
Kissinger, Years of Upheaval.
60.
FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. XXXVII, Energy Crisis, 1974–1980, Memorandum of Conversation, 9 December 1974, 89; Fredrik Logevall and Andrew Preston (eds.), Nixon in the World: American Foreign Relations, 1969–1977 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).
61.
ASE, Fondo ENI, Programmazione, b.17, f.388E, Raffaele Girotti , ‘La programmazione energetica nazionale in Italia nel quadro della situazione mondiale delle fonti di approvvigionamento’, May 1974; ASE, Fondo ENI, Presidenza Girotti, Segreteria, b.107, f.12F.
62.
‘Il piano petrolifero’, Ecos. Rivista a cura dell’ENI, 13–14 (1974), 54; Raffaele Girotti , ‘Funzioni dell’ENI nella definizione del Piano petrolifero’, Economia pubblica 2 (1974): 41–46.
63.
‘Il piano petrolifero’, Ecos. Rivista a cura dell’ENI, 13–14 (1974).
64.
Labbate, Il governo dell’energia.
65.
Fabio Lavista , La stagione della programmazione. Grandi imprese e Stato dal dopoguerra agli anni Settanta (Bologna: il Mulino, 2010); Briatico, Ascesa e declino.

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Elisabetta Bini

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Dipartimento di Scienze Politiche, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
Antonio Varsori
European University Institute, Florence, Italy
Benedetto Zaccaria

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Bini, E. (2018). Reshaping Transatlantic Energy Relations: Italy, the United States and Arab Producers During the 1970s. In: Varsori, A., Zaccaria, B. (eds) Italy in the International System from Détente to the End of the Cold War. Security, Conflict and Cooperation in the Contemporary World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65163-7_8

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