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Cyberspace v. Territory: Domain Names and the Problem of Protection for Geographical Indications

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EU Internet Law

Abstract

This chapter examines the protection of geographical indications (and designations of origin) against cybersquatting and other misuses and forms of exploitation of their reputation. Starting with European law, although it seems to offer enhanced protection for geographical terms, it appears that the challenges posed by the cyberspace to the legal principle of territoriality call for the regulation of the question at the international level. However, because trademark law, at both the international and comparative levels, is not sufficiently prepared to regulate the question of geographical indications with regard to domain name registration and use, we argue that an adequate protection of geographical indications can be based on the principle of distributive justice, as well as on the acknowledgement of an (international) right to local identity.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    A geographical indication is not necessarily a geographical term. It may simply be a term of geographical significance, e.g. “feta”, “grappa” and “ouzo” are not geographical terms, but they indicate a provenance and, as such, are protected geographical indications.

  2. 2.

    ECJ, Case C-469/00, Ravil Sarl v Bellon Import Sarl and Biraghi SpA, ECLI:EU:C:2003:295, § 49.

  3. 3.

    Berard (2016).

  4. 4.

    Forrest (2013).

  5. 5.

    E.g. Australian law requires that domain names ending in “com.au” must be derived from the business name of a registered Australian undertaking or a registered trademark. Omond and Waye (2014), p. 221.

  6. 6.

    Dinwoodie (2014).

  7. 7.

    Forrest H.A. ibid, 159, notes that “prior to the introduction of the DNS, outside of the diplomatic context geographical names had a relatively limited, territory-bound scope of use that could effectively be controlled through domestic law…When they began to be used online, geographical names came unmoored from the territory, and thus the legal jurisdiction, that they identify. Now they are potentially registrable as domain names by anyone, anywhere”.

  8. 8.

    Forrest H.A ibid, 301.

  9. 9.

    In Shields v Zuccarini, 254 F 3d 476, 483 (3d Cir., 2001), the US Court defined “typosquatting” as “the intentional registration of domain names that are misspellings of distinctive or famous names, causing an Internet user who makes a slight spelling or typing error to reach an unintended site”; see also Lindsay (2007).

  10. 10.

    On the evolution of the French system on appellations of origin, see Georgopoulos (2014a).

  11. 11.

    OJ L 93, 31.3.2006, p. 12.

  12. 12.

    OJ L 343, 14.12.2012, p. 1.

  13. 13.

    Blakeney (2014).

  14. 14.

    Article 103 § 2a of Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013, establishing a common organisation of the markets in agricultural products (OJ L 347, 20.12.2013, p. 671).

  15. 15.

    Article 16a of Regulation (EC) No 110/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008, on the definition, description, presentation, labelling and the protection of geographical indications of spirit drinks (OJ L 39, 13.02.2008, p. 16).

  16. 16.

    On the ownership of geographical indications: Audier (1993), Georgopoulos (2014b).

  17. 17.

    See Article 6 § 3 of Regulation (EU) 1151/2012; Article 100 of Regulation (EU) 1308/2013; Article 19 of Regulation (EC) 110/2018.

  18. 18.

    Case T-237/08, Abadía Retuerta, SA v OHIM, ECLI:EU:T:2010:185.

  19. 19.

    Directive 2006/114/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 concerning misleading and comparative advertising (OJ 2006 L376, p. 21).

  20. 20.

    Case C-657/11, Belgian Electronic Sorting Technology NV v Bert Peelaers, Visys NV, ECLI:EU:C:2013:516.

  21. 21.

    A similar protection is granted by Australian law. In the C.I.V.C. v Rachel Jayne Powell [2015] FCA 1110 Case, the Federal Court of Australia addressed the legality of the use of the designation of origin “champagne” in the domain name “champagnejayne.com”. The term “champagne” is protected under Australian law from the bilateral Agreement between the European Community and Australia on the wine trade, signed in 2008. The domain name in question was used for a professional website and social media related to educational programmes, tastings, etc. of sparkling wines in general, including champagne. According to the Federal Court (Decision of 10 October 2015), the conduct of the respondent was likely to have reinforced and encouraged the perpetuation of the misconception of consumers who may believe that all the wines presented on the website were related to champagne (§ 227). This attitude was qualified as misleading under Section 18(1) of the 2010 Competition and Consumer Act (Cth), which provides: “a person must not, in trade or commerce, engage in conduct that is misleading or deceptive or is likely to mislead or deceive”.

  22. 22.

    Case C-657/11, § 44: “the mere registration of such a domain name does not in itself contain any advertising representation, but constitutes, at most, a restriction on the communication opportunities of that competitor, which may, where appropriate, be penalised under other legal provisions”.

  23. 23.

    Lindsay D. ibid, 95 seq.

  24. 24.

    WIPO, The Recognition of Rights and the Use of Names in the Internet Domain Name System, Report of the Second WIPO Internet Domain Name Process, http://wipo2.wipo.int, September 3, 2001.

  25. 25.

    WIPO, § 238.

  26. 26.

    In this sense, the level of protection granted for geographical indications at the European level is higher, as will be shown later.

  27. 27.

    This is e.g. the case of the 16 semi-generic designations for wine names recognised by U.S. law (27 CFR 4.2.4); on this question, see Mendelson and Gerien (2011), pp. 217, 267; Josling (2006).

  28. 28.

    Geuze (2016) ibid, 99.

  29. 29.

    City of Potsdam v Transglobal Networx Inc., WIPOCaseNo.D2002-0856 (“potsdam.com”).

  30. 30.

    Regulation (EU) 1308/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 establishing a common organisation of the markets in the agricultural products (JO L 347).

  31. 31.

    The Panel’s decision cites Lindsay D. ibid, 208; see also Bollinger v Costa Brava Wine Co Limited [1960] Ch 262; Vine Products v MacKenzie [1968] FSR 625, cited by D. LINDSAY.

  32. 32.

    Ibid.

  33. 33.

    This is legally possible, as Art. 95 § 1 of Regulation (EU) 1308/2013 provides: “[a]ny interested group of producers, or in exceptional and duly justifiable cases a single producer, may apply for the protection of a designation of origin or geographical indication”.

  34. 34.

    Case No. D2000-0629.

  35. 35.

    See Telstra Corporation Limited v Nuclear Marshmallows, Case no. D2000-0003.

  36. 36.

    Case No. D2003-047.

  37. 37.

    Oki Dare Americas, Inc. v ASD, Inc., WIPO Case No. D2001-0903.

  38. 38.

    In The Paris Pages v Woohoo T&C Ltd. case of the National Arbitration Forum (NAF Case No FA110763 of July 10, 2002), a similar approach was adopted with regard to the geographical name of “Paris”; see also D. LINDSAY, note 9, 230.

  39. 39.

    Barcelona.com Inc. v Excelentisimo Ayuntamiento de Barcelona, 330 F.3d 617, Civ. No. 02-1396 (4th Cir., June 2, 2003).

  40. 40.

    Lanham Act: Chapter 22 of Title 15 of the U.S. Code; see Clowers (2006), p. 1.

  41. 41.

    ECJ, Case C-109/97, Windsurfing Chiemsee Produktions v Boots & Attenberger, 1999 E.C.R. 1-2779.

  42. 42.

    Goebel and Groeschl (2016).

  43. 43.

    According to the ECJ, Case C-388/95 Belgium v Spain [2000] ECR I-3146, pt. 54: “[geographical indications] fall within the scope of industrial and commercial property rights. The applicable rules protect those entitled to use them against improper use of those designations by third parties seeking to profit from the reputation which they have acquired. They are intended to guarantee that the product bearing them comes from a specified geographical area and displays certain particular characteristics”; see also Case C-3/91 Exportur S.A.[1992] ECR I-5553.

  44. 44.

    Georgopoulos (2014a), Audier (1993).

  45. 45.

    Rawls (2001), pp. 42–43.

  46. 46.

    Sypnowich (2005), p. 55.

  47. 47.

    Forrest H.A ibid.

  48. 48.

    On the difference between “capabilities” and “rights”, see Nussbaum (2006), p. 284.

  49. 49.

    Forrest H.A. ibid, 259, refers to “national identity” to assert the link between positive international law and the need for protection for geographical indications, through the principle of self-determination. Yet it is unlikely that the right of (internal) self-determination could be used in this case; not only has it been shaped in the specific context of protection of minorities, but, furthermore, local identity is not necessarily expressed (at least in an authentic and sufficiently direct way) as part of a larger national identity.

  50. 50.

    Wilson (2006), p. 11.

  51. 51.

    Gangjee (2015), pp. 544, 549.

  52. 52.

    Forrest H.A. ibid, 254.

  53. 53.

    See Tredinninck-Rowe and Taylor (2015).

  54. 54.

    Forrest H.A. ibid, 288.

  55. 55.

    And yet scholars underline that the existing mechanisms for the resolution of conflicts between trademarks and domain names are far from being satisfactory; Wood (2014), p. 452, even proposes a general reform of applicable international law, mainly through the conclusion of an international domain name treaty. In such case, the right to a local identity could be included as a limit on the practice of the registration and use of domain names.

  56. 56.

    WIPO, Geneva Act of the Lisbon Agreement on Appellations of Origin and Geographical Indications and Regulations Under the Geneva Act of the Lisbon Agreement on Appellations of Origin and Geographical Indications, (2015), http://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/details.jsp?meeting_id=35202; see Gervais (2015).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Wine & Law Program - Jean Monnet Chair, Law School, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 9 Boulevard de la Paix, 51100, Reims, France

    Theodore Georgopoulos

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  1. Theodore Georgopoulos
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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Law, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus

    Tatiana-Eleni Synodinou

  2. School of Law, European University Campus, Nicosia, Cyprus

    Philippe Jougleux

  3. School of Law, European University Campus, Nicosia, Cyprus

    Christiana Markou

  4. School of Law, European University Campus, Nicosia, Cyprus

    Thalia Prastitou

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Georgopoulos, T. (2017). Cyberspace v. Territory: Domain Names and the Problem of Protection for Geographical Indications. In: Synodinou, TE., Jougleux, P., Markou, C., Prastitou, T. (eds) EU Internet Law. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64955-9_13

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