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The Legal Instruments for Agri-Environmental Goals and the Influence of International Factors: The Case of Swiss Agricultural Policies

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Agricultural Law

Part of the book series: LITES - Legal Issues in Transdisciplinary Environmental Studies ((LITES,volume 1))

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Abstract

After decades of focusing on the increase of production, since 1990 Switzerland’s agricultural policy has brought about significant changes in order to foster the protection of the environment. The changes are mirrored in the Swiss constitutional provisions on the environment and agriculture. They lay down the bases for the main legal instruments—primarily binding regulation on the protection of water, soil and air, as well as monetary incentives in the form of direct payments—for the implementation of the Swiss agri-environmental goals. In comparison, international provisions only play a minor role. However, in times of market liberalisations, international trade and trade law will increasingly influence Swiss agriculture and its agri-environmental goals. More than ever, Swiss policymakers will have to find a balance between the interests of farmers to increase their production and the implementation of laws protecting the environment. When it comes to the latter, the most recent official federal agricultural policies may lead to the conclusion that the legislator does not deem it necessary to further develop the agri-environmental goals and the current status quo of agri-environmental protection.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    OECD (2015), p. 41.

  2. 2.

    Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of 18 April 1999 (Cst.), SR 101. The English translations of certain acts and laws provided by the on-line portal of the Swiss government have no legal force, but will be used for the purposes of this article.

  3. 3.

    Federal Act on Agriculture of 29 April 1998 (AgricA), SR 910.1.

  4. 4.

    Federal Act on the Protection of Waters of 24 January 1991 (Waters Protection Act WPA), SR 814.20.

  5. 5.

    AS 1953 1073.

  6. 6.

    Bundesrat (1956), p. 328.

  7. 7.

    Bundesrat (1956), p. 326.

  8. 8.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1956), p. 327.

  9. 9.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1959), p. 206.

  10. 10.

    Bundesrat (1959), p. 220.

  11. 11.

    Bundesrat (1965), p. 432 et seqq.

  12. 12.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1965), p. 481 et seqq.

  13. 13.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1965), p. 482.

  14. 14.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1969), p. 444.

  15. 15.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1969), p. 495. From today’s perspective, the accordance with economic principles is difficult to identify in the view of the heavy subsidisation and the philosophy of guiding agricultural policy through pricing and sales policies.

  16. 16.

    Bundesrat (1969), p. 522.

  17. 17.

    Bundesrat (1976), p. 263.

  18. 18.

    Bundesrat (1976), p. 265.

  19. 19.

    Bundesrat (1976), p. 418.

  20. 20.

    Bundesrat (1976), p. 318.

  21. 21.

    Bundesrat (1976), p. 421.

  22. 22.

    Cf. e.g. the elaborations on the growing concerns of the population and the apparent change of perception of agriculture from nourishing to causing ecological problems which the Federal Council seems to discern among Switzerland’s citizens; Bundesrat (1992a, b), pp. 417 et seqq.

  23. 23.

    Bundesrat (1984), p. 555.

  24. 24.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1984), pp. 591 et seqq.

  25. 25.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1984), p. 573.

  26. 26.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1984), p. 714.

  27. 27.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1992a), p. 215.

  28. 28.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1992a), p. 218.

  29. 29.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1992a), p. 255.

  30. 30.

    Bundesrat (1992a), p. 261.

  31. 31.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1992a), pp. 261 et seqq.

  32. 32.

    For the reasons for these changes in the system, see Bundesrat (1992b), pp. 1 et seqq.

  33. 33.

    Art. 31a(4) AgricA 1992, AS 1993 1571.

  34. 34.

    AS 1998 3033. The introduction of the proof of ecological performance made Switzerland to one of the forerunners in introducing environmental cross-compliance conditions, OECD (2015), p. 13.

  35. 35.

    Bundesrat (1996), pp. 7 and 203 et seqq.

  36. 36.

    Bundesrat (2002), p. 4730.

  37. 37.

    Bundesrat (2002), p. 4723.

  38. 38.

    AS 2007 6095. For the concept and reasons behind the new payments, see Bundesrat (2006), pp. 6441 et seqq.

  39. 39.

    For the new system of direct payments see Bundesrat (2012), pp. 2190 et seqq.

  40. 40.

    AS 2013 3463.

  41. 41.

    Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of 18 April 1999 (Cst.), SR 101, art. 104(1).

  42. 42.

    AS 1996 2502. After the complete revision of the Constitution in 1999, the former art. 31octies Cst. on agriculture received a new number (and one minor terminological change) and is henceforth art. 104 Cst.

  43. 43.

    Bundesrat (2006), p. 6356; Richli (2005), p. 153.

  44. 44.

    On the legal notion of sustainability, see Ott and Döring (2008).

  45. 45.

    Richli (2005), p. 153.

  46. 46.

    Cf. Hofer (2011a), pp. 5 et seq.

  47. 47.

    Cf. Swiss Federal Tribunal, Case 1A.115/2003, para 3.2.

  48. 48.

    Rausch (2001), p. 918.

  49. 49.

    Cf. Vallender (2014), note 32.

  50. 50.

    Cf. Vallender (2014), note 53.

  51. 51.

    Cf. Vallender (2014), note 14.

  52. 52.

    Cf. Morell and Vallender (2014), note 1.

  53. 53.

    Maurer (1995), p. 30; BBl 1970 I 776.

  54. 54.

    AS 1972 950.

  55. 55.

    AS 1984 1122.

  56. 56.

    For more details on the protection of natural heritage in agriculture, see Maurer (1995).

  57. 57.

    Morell and Vallender (2014), note 6.

  58. 58.

    Cf. Morell and Vallender (2014), note 8.

  59. 59.

    See with further references Morell and Vallender (2014), note 20 et seqq.

  60. 60.

    See with further references Morell and Vallender (2014), note 28 et seqq.

  61. 61.

    For more details on water protection in Switzerland, see Hettich et al. (2016).

  62. 62.

    Marti (2014), note 2.

  63. 63.

    For more details see Hettich et al. (2016); Brunner (2002), pp. 538 et seqq.

  64. 64.

    Maurer (1999), p. 399.

  65. 65.

    Vgl. Bundesrat (2011), pp. 4401 and 4405.

  66. 66.

    Errass (2014), note 8 et seqq.

  67. 67.

    Errass (2014), note 15.

  68. 68.

    Maurer (1999), p. 413.

  69. 69.

    Cf. Vallender (2014), note 1 et seqq.

  70. 70.

    As to the influence of other sources of international law that do not directly concern environmental law, such as international trade law and EU law, on Swiss agro-ecology, see Sect. 5 below.

  71. 71.

    Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention), SR 0.455.

  72. 72.

    See Sect. 5.1 below.

  73. 73.

    See also Sect. 5.3 below.

  74. 74.

    Cf. Maurer (1995), p. 30; see also Hofer (2011a).

  75. 75.

    Cf. Hofer (2011a), p. 12.

  76. 76.

    Cf. Brunner (2002), p. 551.

  77. 77.

    Cf. Schmid (2002), p. 4.

  78. 78.

    Cf. Biedermann (2002), pp. 496 et seqq.

  79. 79.

    Cf. Noe and Alroe (2015), p. 32.

  80. 80.

    Verordnung über die Beurteilung der Nachhaltigkeit in der Landwirtschaft vom 7. Dezember 1998, SR 919.118.

  81. 81.

    Bundesamt für Landwirtschaft and Bundesamt für Umwelt (2008).

  82. 82.

    Bundesamt für Landwirtschaft and Bundesamt für Umwelt (2008), p. 5.

  83. 83.

    As to the topic of taxes as instruments for the greening of agriculture (in Germany), see Möckel (2006).

  84. 84.

    For the classification of legal instruments governing environmental policy, see Morell and Vallender (2014), note 16 with further references.

  85. 85.

    Cf. Popp (2011), p. 31 with further references.

  86. 86.

    Popp (2011), p. 37.

  87. 87.

    Art. 2(e) Verordnung über die Direktzahlungen an die Landwirtschaft vom 23. Oktober 2013 (Direktzahlungsverordnung DZV), SR 910.13.

  88. 88.

    Federal Act on the Protection of the Environment (Environmental Protection Act EPA), SR 814.01.

  89. 89.

    One unit of manure corresponds to the average annual production of liquid and solid manure by one cow weighing 600 kg, art. 14 (8) Federal Act on the Protection of Waters of 24 January 1991 (Waters Protection Act WPA), SR 814.20.

  90. 90.

    Cf. the documentation at http://www.blw.admin.ch/themen/00010/00071/00128/index.html?lang=de.

  91. 91.

    Verordnung über Belastungen des Bodens vom 1. Juli 1998 (VBBo), SR 814.12.

  92. 92.

    Cf. art. 1 VBBo.

  93. 93.

    The different strategies and measures concerning agriculture and climate change are listed on the website of the Federal Office for Agriculture, http://www.blw.admin.ch/themen/00010/00071/00265/index.html?lang=de.

  94. 94.

    For an overview of the changes, see Norer and Wasserfallen (2010), p. 37; Norer and Wasserfallen (2011), p. 33; Norer and Wasserfallen (2012), pp. 58 et seqq.

  95. 95.

    The income of Swiss farmers heavily depends on direct payments; see OECD (2015), p. 13. The provision is therefore of undeniable significance.

  96. 96.

    Verordnung über die Koordination der Kontrollen auf Landwirtschaftsbetrieben vom 23. Oktober 2013 (VKKL), SR 910.15.

  97. 97.

    For a general overview of international environmental law, see Nanda and Pring (2013); for the Swiss perspective Griffel (2001); Jositsch (1997).

  98. 98.

    See Keller and von Arb (2006), p. 463 with further references.

  99. 99.

    Cf. Keller and von Arb (2006), p. 439.

  100. 100.

    Cf. Vallender (2014), note 5 with further references.

  101. 101.

    Cf. Keller and von Arb (2006), pp. 465 et seqq. The authors, however, remain sceptical.

  102. 102.

    Bundesrat (1996), pp. 16 et seqq.

  103. 103.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1996), p. 17.

  104. 104.

    Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention), SR 0.455.

  105. 105.

    Federal Act on the Protection of the Environment (Environmental Protection Act EPA), SR 814.01.

  106. 106.

    Art. 2(e) Verordnung über die Direktzahlungen an die Landwirtschaft vom 23. Oktober 2013 (Direktzahlungsverordnung DZV), SR 910.13.

  107. 107.

    Verordnung über Pflanzenschutz vom 27. Oktober 2010 (Pflanzenschutzverordnung PSV), SR 916.20.

  108. 108.

    Cf. Untermaier (2011), p. 7.

  109. 109.

    General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, SR 0.632.21.

  110. 110.

    Cf. Bundesrat (1992a), p. 425.

  111. 111.

    Cf. e.g. Bundesrat (2012), pp. 2321 et seqq. Elaborating on the accordance of the latest amendments of the direct payment system with WTO law.

  112. 112.

    Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Swiss Confederation, SR 0.632.401.

  113. 113.

    Agreement between the European Community and the Swiss Confederation on trade in agricultural products, SR 0.916.026.81.

  114. 114.

    Agreement between the European Community and the Swiss Confederation amending the Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Swiss Confederation concerning the provisions applicable to the processed agricultural products, SR 0.632.401.23.

  115. 115.

    Particularly not in Switzerland; recent initiatives towards a further liberalisation initiated by the government were discussed controversially and opposed in parliament. According to the Swiss legislator, there will not be a free trade agreement on agricultural goods between the EU and Switzerland in the foreseeable future.

  116. 116.

    Cf. OECD (2015), pp. 90 et seqq.

  117. 117.

    So-called autonomous implementation/adoption or, sometimes, voluntary/unilateral alignment.

  118. 118.

    Every intended change of legislation has to be examined as to its compatibility and relationship with EU law, art. 141 (2)(a) Federal Act on the Federal Assembly of 13 December 2002 (Parliament Act ParlA), SR 171.10. Cf. Wyss (2007), pp. 717 et seqq.

  119. 119.

    Norer (2011), p. 247.

  120. 120.

    Monpion (2013), pp. 125 et seqq gives an overview of the development of the second pillar of the CAP in the context of environmental requirements.

  121. 121.

    On the adoption of the direct payments for particularly ecological public services—previously voluntary conditions—as the henceforth underlying principle for all direct payments in the form of the proof of ecological performance, see Bundesrat (1996), p. 203.

  122. 122.

    Norer (2011), p. 254.

  123. 123.

    Hofer (2011b), p. 53.

  124. 124.

    Hofer (2011b), p. 52.

  125. 125.

    Hofer (2011b), p. 52.

  126. 126.

    See Hofer (2011a, b), p. 53.

  127. 127.

    For the situation in the EU, cf. Monpion (2013), pp. 41 et seqq.

  128. 128.

    Three options are being discussed in parliament: comply with TTIP law unilaterally in order to ensure market access, negotiate a status as associated state or increase the protection of domestic agriculture by raising direct payments and tariff barriers, cf. Parliamentary Interpellation 14.3111; Parliamentary Postulate 14.3314; Parliamentary Interpellation 14.3395; Parliamentary Interpellation 143,399; Parliamentary Interpellation 14.3622; Parliamentary Question 14.5551; Parliamentary Postulate 14.4186.

  129. 129.

    Cf. Cottier et al. (2014).

  130. 130.

    Parliamentary Interpellation 14.3111; Parliamentary Interpellation 14.3399; Parliamentary Interpellation 14.3622.

  131. 131.

    OECD (2015), pp. 90 et seqq.

  132. 132.

    See Sect. 2.

  133. 133.

    See Sects. 3 and 4.

  134. 134.

    See Sect. 5.

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    Christa Preisig

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Preisig, C. (2017). The Legal Instruments for Agri-Environmental Goals and the Influence of International Factors: The Case of Swiss Agricultural Policies. In: Alabrese, M., Brunori, M., Rolandi, S., Saba, A. (eds) Agricultural Law. LITES - Legal Issues in Transdisciplinary Environmental Studies, vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64756-2_6

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