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China and the Middle East pp 99–128Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Navigating Regional Rivalries and Sensitivities

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Part of the book series: Global Political Transitions ((GLPOTR))

Abstract

China’s desire to avoid being bogged down and mired in the Middle East and North Africa’s numerous wars, conflicts, disputes, and animosities is proving to be a gargantuan, if not impossible, task. Complicating its efforts is the spread of Saudi-inspired Sunni Muslim ultra-conservatism in China among both Uyghurs in Xinjiang and more mainstream Hui Muslims. Chinese concern that Saudi Arabia is supporting Salafism in China is one of several potential drivers that could push China to tilt towards Iran despite its declared neutrality in the power struggle between the two regional heavyweights.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Keith B. Richburg, China tamps down Middle East-inspired protests before they can gain momentum, The Washington Post, 28 February 2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/27/AR2011022700606.html

  2. 2.

    John W. Garver, China & Iran, Ancient Partners in a Post-imperial World, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006, p. 132

  3. 3.

    Ibid. Garver, p. 67

  4. 4.

    Baris Adibelli, Sino-Iranian Relations since the Cold War in Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Yukiko Miyagi, The Emerging Middle East—East Asia Nexus, New York: Routledge, 2015, pp. 112–113

  5. 5.

    James M. Dorsey, China and the Middle East: Venturing into the Maelstrom, S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, WP 296, 18 March 2016, http://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsis-publication/rsis/wp296/

  6. 6.

    Michael Dillon, The Middle East and China, in Hannah Carter and Anoushiravan Ehteshami (eds), The Middle East’s Relations with Asia and Russia, London: Routledge, 2004, p. 51

  7. 7.

    Ibid. Dillon, p. 51

  8. 8.

    Baris Adibelli, Cin’in Diplomatik Yenilgisi (The Diplomatic Defeat of China), Cumhurriyet Strateji, No. 110, 7 August 2006, pp. 18–19

  9. 9.

    Wai-Yip Ho, Islam and China’s Hong Kong: Ethnic Identity, Muslim Networks and the new Silk Road, New York: Routledge, 2013, pp. 85–87

  10. 10.

    Interviews with the author, 20–24 October 2017

  11. 11.

    Raffaello Pantucci and Anna Sophia Young, Xinjiang trade raises doubts over China’s “Belt and Road” plan, Financial Times, 10 August 2016, https://www.ft.com/content/dd55c5e4-ba94-33b2-bcaf-c6d4dc042824

  12. 12.

    Ziad Haider, Sino-Pakistan Relations and Xinjiang’s Uighurs: Politics, Trade and Islam along the Karakoram Highway, Asian Survey, Vol. XLV:4, pp. 522–545

  13. 13.

    John Cooley, Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America, and International Terrorism, London: Pluto Press, 2002, pp. 57–58

  14. 14.

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  15. 15.

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  16. 16.

    Eli Jacobs, China’s Underground “Great Wall”: A Success for Nuclear Primacy, Center for International and Strategic Studies, 25 October 2011, https://csis.org/blog/chinas-underground-great-wall-success-nuclear-primacy

  17. 17.

    Bill Roggio, Turkistan Islamic Party emir thought killed in 2010 reemerged to lead group in 2014, The Long War Journal, 11 June 2015, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/06/turkistan-islamic-party-emir-thought-killed-in-2010-reemerged-to-lead-group-in-2014.php

  18. 18.

    Ravi Shekhar Narain Singh Singh, The Military Factor in Pakistan, New Delhi: Lancer Publishers, 2008, p. 426

  19. 19.

    B. Raman, How China Forced Musharraf To Move, Outlook, 4 July 2007, http://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/how-china-forced-musharraf-to-move/235015

  20. 20.

    Suhaib Anjarini, Al-Baghdadi following in bin Laden’s footsteps, Al Akhbar English, 2 July 2014, https://english.al-akhbar.com/node/20400

  21. 21.

    Don Mackay, ISIS Militants in Iraq Proclaim New Islamic State and Pose Threat to All Countries, Mirror, 30 June 2014, http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/isis-militants-iraq-proclaim-new-3790221 / https://twitter.com/Third_Position

  22. 22.

    James Griffiths, Al-Qaeda magazine calls for Xinjiang to be “recovered by the Islamic Caliphate,” October 2014, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1621190/new-al-qaeda-magazine-calls-xinjiang-be-recovered-islamic-caliphate/ https://twitter.com/Third_Position/status/478626230418173952/photo/1

  23. 23.

    Al-Tamimi, China-Saudi Arabia Relations, pp. 92–93

  24. 24.

    The Economist, The riots in Xinjiang: Is China fraying? 9 July 2009, http://www.economist.com/node/13988479

  25. 25.

    Malcolm Moore, Al Qaeda vows revenge on China over Uighur deaths, The Telegraph, 14 July 2009, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/5822791/Al-Qaeda-vows-revenge-on-China-over-Uighur-deaths.html

  26. 26.

    Zachary Keck, China Doubles Down on Iraqi Oil Gamble, The Diplomat, 18 October 2013, Bree Feng and Edward Wong. China Keeps a Close Eye on Oil Interests in Iraq, The New York Times, 17 June 2014, http://sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/china-keeps-a-close-eye-on-oil-interests-in-iraq/?_r=0

  27. 27.

    Hassan Hassan, Revealed: the plot to blow up Dragon Mart, The National, 9 July 2010, http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/courts/revealed-the-plot-to-blow-up-dragonmart#full

  28. 28.

    Pu Zhendong, Rise of ISIS surpasses other Middle East chaos, China Daily USA, 4 September 2014, http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2014-09/04/content_18546632.htm

  29. 29.

    Ibid.

  30. 30.

    James M. Dorsey, China’s Uighurs: A Potential Time Bomb in James Reardon-Anderson, The Red Star and the Crescent, London: Hurst, 2017, pp. 241–259

  31. 31.

    Hodong Kim, Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004)

  32. 32.

    Ibid. Dorsey

  33. 33.

    Yufan Hao and Weihu Liu, Xinjiang, increasing pain in the heartland of China’s borderland, Journal of Contemporary China. Vol. 21:74, pp. 205–225

  34. 34.

    Sebastien Peyrouse, Security And Islam In Asia: Lessons From China’s Uighur Minority, FRIDE, 18 July 2011, http://www.eurasiareview.com/28072011-security-and-islam-in-asia-lessons-from-china%E2%80%99s-Uighur-minority/

  35. 35.

    Pan Guang, Keynote Speech at International Conference on China in the Middle East, Indiana University and Peking University, Beijing, 17–18 March 2015

  36. 36.

    Ucan, China Losing Battle Against Extremist Islamic Teachings, Says Muslim Official, Eurasia Review, 30 March 2015, http://www.eurasiareview.com/30032015-china-losing-battle-against-extremist-islamic-teachings-says-muslim-official/

  37. 37.

    Xinhuanet, Full Text: Historical Witness to Ethnic Equality, Unity and Development in Xinjiang, 25 September 2015, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2015-09/24/c_134655252.htm

  38. 38.

    South China Morning Post, China’s military in restive Xinjiang told to learn Uygur folk songs and dances, 16 September 2015, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/1858710/chinas-military-restive-xinjiang-told-learn-uygur-folk

  39. 39.

    Ibid.

  40. 40.

    State Council Information Office, Freedom of Religious Belief in Xinjiang, 2 June 2016, http://www.china.org.cn/government/whitepaper/node_7238246.htm

  41. 41.

    Ibid.

  42. 42.

    Ibid.

  43. 43.

    Ibid.

  44. 44.

    Qiao Long, China Enters Ramadan With Round-The-Clock Surveillance of Mosques, Uighurs, Radio Free Asia, 6 June 2016, http://www.rfa.org/english/news/Uighur/ramadan-06062016113750.html

  45. 45.

    Interview with the author, 3 June 2016

  46. 46.

    Shohret Hoshur, At Least Five Dead in Uighur Prisoner Uprising, Radio Free Asia, 1 June 2016, http://www.rfa.org/english/news/Uighur/at-lesat-five-06012016164430.html

  47. 47.

    Martin Patience, China Xinjiang: Muslim students ‘made to eat’ at Ramadan, BBC News, 11 July 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-china-blog-28263496

  48. 48.

    Jeremey Page and Josh Chin, Xinjiang Authorities Ban Wearing of Face-Covering Veils, The Wall Street Journal, 11 December 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/xinjiang-authorities-ban-wearing-of-face-covering-veils-1418303682

  49. 49.

    Ibid. Dorsey

  50. 50.

    Stanley Toops, Spatial Results of the 2010 Census in Xinjiang, University of Nottingham China Blog, 7 March 2016, https://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/chinapolicyinstitute/2016/03/07/spatial-results-of-the-2010-census-in-xinjiang/

  51. 51.

    Christopher M. Clarke, Xinjiang—Where China’s Worry Intersects the World, YaleGlobal, 19 March 2012, http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/xinjiang-where-chinas-worry-intersects-world

  52. 52.

    Population Census Office of Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, Tabulation on the 2000 Population Census of Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, Urumqi: Xinjiang People’s Publishing House, 2002, quoted in Yufan Hao and Weiha Liu, Xinjiang, increasing pain in the heartland of China’s borderland, Journal of Contemporary China, Vol. 21:74, pp. 205–225

  53. 53.

    Nicholas Becqueline, Xinjiang in the Nineties, The China Journal, No. 44, pp. 65–90

  54. 54.

    Nicholas Becqueline, Staged Development in Xinjiang, The China Quarterly, No. 178, pp. 358–378

  55. 55.

    Ibid. Dorsey

  56. 56.

    Halford J. Mackinder, “The geographical pivot of history,” Geographical Journal, Vol. 23:4, pp. 421–437

  57. 57.

    Alice Su, Harmony and Martyrdom Among China’s Hui Muslims, The New Yorker, 6 June 2016, http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/harmony-and-martyrdom-among-chinas-hui-muslims

  58. 58.

    Christina Y. Lin, ISIS Caliphate Meets China’s Silk Road Economic Belt, IDC Herzliya Rubin Center, 15 February 2015, http://www.rubincenter.org/2015/02/isis-caliphate-meets-chinas-silk-road-economic-belt/

  59. 59.

    Interview with the author, 24 June 2016

  60. 60.

    World Uighur Congress, “Seeking A Place to Breathe Freely, Current Challenges Faced by Uighur Refugees & Asylum Seekers,” June 2016, http://www.Uighurcongress.org/en/wp-content/uploads/dlm_uploads/WUC-Seeking-a-Place-to-Breathe-Freely-June-2016.pdf

  61. 61.

    Joshua Tschantret, Repression, opportunity and innovation: The evolution of terrorism in Xinjiang, China, Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 28:4

  62. 62.

    Ahmed Rashid, Why Pakistan is Sinking, The New York Review of Books, 2 April 2015, http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2015/04/02/fierce-pressures-facing-pakistan/

  63. 63.

    Ibid. Fardelli

  64. 64.

    Qiu Yongzheng, Turkey’s ambiguous policies help terrorists join IS jihadist group: analyst, Global Times, 15 December 2014, http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/896765.shtml

  65. 65.

    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hTJr9rgCx0&utm (no longer accessible)

  66. 66.

    Iraqi Ministry of Defense, Facebook, 2 September 2014, https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid=731771496858619&id=611071662261937

  67. 67.

    Ibid. Yongzheng

  68. 68.

    Heavy, WATCH: 80-Year-Old ISIS Soldier Gives Interview, 2 June 2015, http://heavy.com/news/2015/06/oldest-islamic-state-isis-soldier-interview-video-turkestan-youtube-video/

  69. 69.

    Ibid.

  70. 70.

    Aaron Y. Zelin, New nashīd from The Islamic State: “Mujāhid,” Jihadology, 2 December 2015, http://jihadology.net/2015/12/06/new-nashid-from-the-islamic-state-mujahid/

  71. 71.

    Stephen Chen, “Islamic State hackers” attack top tier Chinese university’s website urging holy war, South China Morning Post, 18 January 2016, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/1902268/islamic-state-hackers-attack-top-tier-chinese

  72. 72.

    Lin Meilian, Xinjiang Terrorists Finding Training, Support in Syria, Turkey, Global Times, 1 July 2013, https://services.globaltimes.cn/epaper/2013-07-02/2F27552.htm

  73. 73.

    John Hall, Meet the Peshmerga’s International Brigade: From IT workers to ex-soldiers, the men from the West teaming up with Kurdish forces to fight ISIS, The Daily Mail, 21 April 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3049019/Peshmerga-s-foreign-legion-fighting-alongside-defeat-ISIS-workers-ex-soldiers-brave-men-world-teaming-Kurdish-forces.html

  74. 74.

    Information Office of State Council, “East Turkistan” Terrorist Forces Cannot Get Away with Impunity, 21 January 2002, http://www.china.org.cn/english/2002/Jan/25582.htm

  75. 75.

    Shichor, Ethno-Diplomacy: The Uighur Hitch in Sino-Turkish Relations

  76. 76.

    Michael Clarke, Uighur Militants in Syria: The Turkish Connection, The Jamestown Foundation, Terrorism Monitor, Vol.14:3, 4 February 2016, http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=45067&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=7&cHash=200344abdd89976c56dee55481597515

  77. 77.

    Armando Cordoba, China Looks to Kurdistan as Growing Oil Partner, Rudaw, 29 July 2013, http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/29072013

  78. 78.

    Selcuk Colakoglu, Dynamics of Sino–Turkish Relations: A Turkish Perspective, East Asia, Vol. 32:1, pp. 7–23.

  79. 79.

    China Daily, Zhu in Turkey, Vows to Fight Terrorism, 17 April 2002, http://www.china.org.cn/english/2002/Apr/30829.htm

  80. 80.

    Interview with Jamaat-i-Islami leader Maulana Siraj ul Haq, 15 July 2016

  81. 81.

    David P. Goldman, Saudi Arabia stews in policy hell: Spengler, Asia Times, 3 January 2016, http://atimes.com/2016/01/saudi-arabia-in-policy-hell/

  82. 82.

    Susan McCarthy, If Allah Wills It: Integration, Isolation and Muslim Authenticity in Yunnan Province in China, Religion, State & Society, Vol. 33:2, pp. 121–136

  83. 83.

    Nasser M. Al-Tamimi, China-Saudi Arabia Relations, 1990–2012, New York: Routledge, 2016, p. 62

  84. 84.

    Elisabeth Alles, Leïla Cherif-Chebbi and Constance-Helene Halfon, Chinese Islam: Unity and Fragmentation, Vol. 31:1, pp. 7–35

  85. 85.

    Maris Boyd Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing: modernization and consumption among urban Chinese Muslims. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000, p. 80

  86. 86.

    Jackie Armijo, Islamic Education in China, Harvard Asia Quarterly, 2009, http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_551_600/islamic_education_in_china.htm

  87. 87.

    Ibid. Armijo

  88. 88.

    Mohammed Al-Sudairi, Changing State-Religion Dynamics in Xi Jinping’s China: And its Consequences for Sino-Saudi Relations, King Faisal Center For Research and Islamic Studies, January 2017, http://kfcris.com/pdf/32a413c468c1b66c84d974e0b34c1efa58d77ebe4d1a1.pdf

  89. 89.

    Mohammed Al-Sudairi, Chinese Salafism and the Saudi Connection, The Diplomat, 23 October 2014, http://thediplomat.com/2014/10/chinese-salafism-and-the-saudi-connection/

  90. 90.

    Interviews with the author, 20–27 October 2016

  91. 91.

    Ibid. Al-Sudairi

  92. 92.

    Qiao Long, Chinese Police Order Xinjiang’s Muslims to Hand in All Copies of The Qur’an, Radio Free Asia, 27 September 2017, http://www.rfa.org/english/news/Uighur/chinese-police-order-xinjiangs-muslims-to-hand-in-all-copies-of-the-quran-09272017113203.html?utm_content=buffer4e532&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

  93. 93.

    Al Jazeera, Chinese Muslim website blocked after Xi Jinping letter, 14 December 2016, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/chinese-muslim-website-blocked-xi-jinping-letter-161214134354018.html

  94. 94.

    CCTV, A special meeting with His Eminence Sheikh Saleh Al-Talib, 5 August 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-yl7rt6GfI / عائض القرني يمدح شعب الصين العظيم بأعجوبة, (Ayad al-Qarni praises the people of China’s great miracle), 13 June 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J0J4VAVmEc0

  95. 95.

    Alice Su, Meet China’s State-Approved Muslims, Foreign Policy, 2 November 2016, https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/11/02/meet-chinas-state-approved-muslims-hui-linxia-beijing-compromise/

  96. 96.

    Xu Wei, Clergy urged to lead battle against extremism spread, The State Council, 28 November 2016, http://english.gov.cn/news/top_news/2016/11/28/content_281475502569856.htm

  97. 97.

    BBC News, China Uighurs: Xinjiang ban on long beards and veils, 1 April 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-39460538?ocid=socialflow_twitter

  98. 98.

    Michael Martina, China’s Hui Muslims fearful after Chinese New Year education ban, Reuters, 17 February 2018, https://english.alarabiya.net/en/features/2018/02/17/China-s-Hui-Muslims-fearful-after-Chinese-New-Year-education-ban-.html

  99. 99.

    China Daily, Saudis face dilemma over Islamic militancy, 2 February 2002, http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8785765.html

  100. 100.

    Arab News, Uighurs, 24 March 2002, http://www.ilaam.net/Intl/Uighurs.html

  101. 101.

    Ibid. Harrison

  102. 102.

    Mohammed Turki Al-Sudairi, China in the Eyes of the Saudi Media, GRC Gulf Papers, Gulf Research Center, February 2013, http://www.ictsd.org/downloads/2013/04/china-in-the-eyes-of-the-saudi-media.pdf

  103. 103.

    Samuel Osborne, Chinese nursery schools ban religion after little girl recites Qur’an, The Independent, 16 May 2016, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/chinese-nursery-schools-ban-religion-after-little-girl-recites-quran-a7029156.html

  104. 104.

    Leng Shumei, Net users slam Meituan for implying non-halal food is “unsafe, unclean,” Global Times, 19 July 2017, http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1057134.shtml

  105. 105.

    The Times of India, China bans use of anti-Islam words on social media, 21 September 2017, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/china/china-bans-use-of-anti-islam-words-on-social-media/articleshow/60778028.cms

  106. 106.

    China-Arab States Expo, 5 September 2015, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/regional/2015-09/05/content_21822030.htm

  107. 107.

    Maurice Gajan, Chinese students of Al-Azhar and their impact on Sino-Egyptian relations, Arab West Report, 2015, http://www.arabwestreport.info/en/chinese-students-studying-islam-egypt

  108. 108.

    Wlodzimierz Cieciura, Bringing China and Islam Closer: The First Chinese Azharites, Middle East Institute, 28 January, 2015, http://www.mei.edu/content/map/bringing-china-and-islam-closer-first-chinese-azharites

  109. 109.

    Zvi Ben-Dor Benite, Taking Abduh to China: Chinese-Egyptian Intellectual Contact in the Early Twentieth Century, in James L. Gelvin and Nile Green (eds.)., Global Muslims in the Age of Steel and Print, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2014, pp. 249–267

  110. 110.

    Alice Su, China Doesn’t Mind Islamic Extremists, Foreign Policy, 16 December 2016, http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/12/16/china-doesnt-mind-islamic-extremists/?utm_source=Sailthru&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=New%20Campaign&utm_term=%2AEditors%20Picks

  111. 111.

    Ibid. Su

  112. 112.

    Interview with the author, 16 January 2017

  113. 113.

    Mohammed Al-Sudairi, Converting the Heathen in Mecca and Battling the Shi’ii Menace in the Far East: A Look at the China-Oriented Missionary Phenomenon in Saudi Arabia, China-Arabia Encounters and Engagements, Singapore, 15 December 2016

  114. 114.

    Ibid. The Economist

  115. 115.

    Ibid. Al-Sudairi

  116. 116.

    Ibid. Al-Sudairi

  117. 117.

    Yitzhak Shichor, Dialogue of the Deaf: The Role of Uyghur Exile Organizations Versus Beijing in Güljanat Kurmangaliyeva Ercilasun and Konuralp Ercilasun (eds), The Uyghur Community: Diaspora, Identity and Geopolitics, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017, pp. 121–137

  118. 118.

    Interview with Hamid Mir, 12 April 2017

  119. 119.

    Sean R. Roberts, A “Land of Borderlands:” Implications of Xinjiang’s Trans-Border Interactions in S. Frederick Starr (ed), Xinjiang, China’s Muslim Borderland, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharp, 2004, pp. 226–227

  120. 120.

    Graham E. Fuller and Jonathan N. Lipman, Islam in Xinjiang in in S. Frederick Starr (ed), Xinjiang, China’s Muslim Borderland, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharp, 2004, pp. 320–353

  121. 121.

    Michael E. Clarke, Xinjiang and China’s Rise in Central Asia—A History, Abingdon: Routledge, 2011, p. 150

  122. 122.

    Yitzhak Shichor, The Great Wall of Steel: Military and Strategy in Xinjiang in S. Frederick Starr (ed), Xinjiang, China’s Muslim Borderland, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharp, 2004, pp. 120–163

  123. 123.

    Closed-door conferences and private meetings witnessed by the author in the period between 2014 and 2016

  124. 124.

    The Associated Press, Thousands of Turks protest China violence, 13 July 2009, http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/thousands-of-turks-protest-china-violence.aspx?pageID=438&n=thousands-of-turks-protest-china-violence-2009-07-13

  125. 125.

    Al-Tamimi, China-Saudi Arabia Relations, p. 91

  126. 126.

    Lillian Craig Harris, China’s Islamic Connection, Asian Affairs, Vol. 8:5, pp. 291–303.

  127. 127.

    Ibid.

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  1. S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

    James M. Dorsey

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Dorsey, J.M. (2019). Navigating Regional Rivalries and Sensitivities. In: China and the Middle East. Global Political Transitions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64355-7_5

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