Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Abbreviations
- AT:
-
Antithrombin
- CVP:
-
Central venous pressure
- DDAVP:
-
Desmopressin
- EACA:
-
Epsilon-aminocaproic acid
- EPCR:
-
Endothelial protein C receptor
- FFP:
-
Fresh frozen plasma
- INR:
-
International normalized ratio
- PAI-1:
-
Plasminogen activator inhibitor
- PT:
-
Prothrombin time
- PTT:
-
Partial thromboplastin time
- RBC:
-
Red blood cell
- TACO:
-
Transfusion associated circulatory overload
- TAFI:
-
Thrombin activatable fibrinolysis factor
- TEG:
-
Thromboelastography
- TF:
-
Tissue factor
- TFPI:
-
Tissue factor pathway inhibitor
- TM:
-
Thrombomodulin
- tPA:
-
Tissue plasminogen activator
- TRALI:
-
Transfusion related acute lung injury
- TxA:
-
Tranexamic acid
- VWF:
-
von Willebrand factor
References
Davie EW, Ratnoff OD. Waterfall sequence for intrinsic blood clotting. Science. 1964;145(3638):1310–2.
Hoffman M, Monroe DM, Roberts HR. Cellular interactions in hemostasis. Haemostasis. 1996;26(Suppl 1):12–6.
Oliver JA, Monroe DM, Roberts HR, Hoffman M. Thrombin activates factor XI on activated platelets in the absence of factor XII. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999;19(1):170–7.
Baglia FA, Walsh PN. Prothrombin is a cofactor for the binding of factor XI to the platelet surface and for platelet-mediated factor XI activation by thrombin. Biochemistry. 1998;37(8):2271–81.
Franssen J, Salemink I, Willems GM, Wun TC, Hemker HC, Lindhout T. Prothrombinase is protected from inactivation by tissue factor pathway inhibitor: competition between prothrombin and inhibitor. Biochem J. 1997;323(Pt 1):33–7.
Lu G, Broze GJ Jr, Krishnaswamy S. Formation of factors IXa and Xa by the extrinsic pathway: differential regulation by tissue factor pathway inhibitor and antithrombin III. J Biol Chem. 2004;279(17):17241–9.
Esmon CT, Stenflo J, Suttie JWA. new vitamin K-dependent protein. A phospholipid-binding zymogen of a serine esterase. J Biol Chem. 1976;251(10):3052–6.
Esmon CT. The endothelial protein C receptor. Curr Opin Hematol. 2006;13(5):382–5.
Esmon CT, Esmon NL, Harris KW. Complex formation between thrombin and thrombomodulin inhibits both thrombin-catalyzed fibrin formation and factor V activation. J Biol Chem. 1982;257(14):7944–7.
Lisman T, Leebeek FW. Hemostatic alterations in liver disease: a review on pathophysiology, clinical consequences, and treatment. Dig Surg. 2007;24(4):250–8.
Tripodi A. The coagulopathy of chronic liver disease: is there a causal relationship with bleeding? No. Eur J Intern Med. 2010;21(2):65–9.
Lisman T, Bongers TN, Adelmeijer J, Janssen HL, de Maat MP, de Groot PG, et al. Elevated levels of von Willebrand Factor in cirrhosis support platelet adhesion despite reduced functional capacity. Hepatology. 2006;44(1):53–61.
Monroe DM, Hoffman M. The coagulation cascade in cirrhosis. Clin Liver Dis. 2009;13(1):1–9.
Raya-Sanchez JM, Gonzalez-Reimers E, Rodriguez-Martin JM, Santolaria-Fernandez F, Molina-Perez M, Rodriguez-Moreno F, et al. Coagulation inhibitors in alcoholic liver cirrhosis. Alcohol (Fayetteville, NY). 1998;15(1):19–23.
Hedner U, Erhardsten E. Hemostatic disorders in liver diseases. In: Schiff ER, Sorrell MF, Maddrey WC, editors. Diseases of the liver. Philadelphia: Lippincott Wiliams & Wilkins; 2003.
Tripodi A, Salerno F, Chantarangkul V, Clerici M, Cazzaniga M, Primignani M, et al. Evidence of normal thrombin generation in cirrhosis despite abnormal conventional coagulation tests. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md). 2005;41(3):553–8.
Jennings I, Calne RY, Baglin TP. Predictive value of von Willebrand factor to ristocetin cofactor ratio and thrombin-antithrombin complex levels for hepatic vessel thrombosis and graft rejection after liver transplantation. Transplantation. 1994;57(7):1046–51.
Aster RH. Pooling of platelets in the spleen: role in the pathogenesis of “hypersplenic” thrombocytopenia. J Clin Invest. 1966;45(5):645–57.
Goulis J, Chau TN, Jordan S, Mehta AB, Watkinson A, Rolles K, et al. Thrombopoietin concentrations are low in patients with cirrhosis and thrombocytopenia and are restored after orthotopic liver transplantation. Gut. 1999;44(5):754–8.
Nagamine T, Ohtuka T, Takehara K, Arai T, Takagi H, Mori M. Thrombocytopenia associated with hepatitis C viral infection. J Hepatol. 1996;24(2):135–40.
Levine RF, Spivak JL, Meagher RC, Sieber F. Effect of ethanol on thrombopoiesis. Br J Haematol. 1986;62(2):345–54.
Klipstein FA, Lindenbaum J. Folate deficiency in chronic liver disease. Blood. 1965;25:443–56.
Ben-Ari Z, Osman E, Hutton RA, Burroughs AK. Disseminated intravascular coagulation in liver cirrhosis: fact or fiction? Am J Gastroenterol. 1999;94(10):2977–82.
Carr JM. Disseminated intravascular coagulation in cirrhosis. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md). 1989;10(1):103–10.
Ordinas A, Escolar G, Cirera I, Vinas M, Cobo F, Bosch J, et al. Existence of a platelet-adhesion defect in patients with cirrhosis independent of hematocrit: studies under flow conditions. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md). 1996;24(5):1137–42.
Escolar G, Cases A, Vinas M, Pino M, Calls J, Cirera I, et al. Evaluation of acquired platelet dysfunctions in uremic and cirrhotic patients using the platelet function analyzer (PFA-100): influence of hematocrit elevation. Haematologica. 1999;84(7):614–9.
Laffi G, Cominelli F, Ruggiero M, Fedi S, Chiarugi VP, La Villa G, et al. Altered platelet function in cirrhosis of the liver: impairment of inositol lipid and arachidonic acid metabolism in response to agonists. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 1988;8(6):1620–6.
Laffi G, La Villa G, Pinzani M, Ciabattoni G, Patrignani P, Mannelli M, et al. Altered renal and platelet arachidonic acid metabolism in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology. 1986;90(2):274–82.
Laffi G, Marra F, Failli P, Ruggiero M, Cecchi E, Carloni V, et al. Defective signal transduction in platelets from cirrhotics is associated with increased cyclic nucleotides. Gastroenterology. 1993;105(1):148–56.
Ordinas A, Maragall S, Castillo R, Nurden AT. A glycoprotein I defect in the platelets of three patients with severe cirrhosis of the liver. Thromb Res. 1978;13(2):297–302.
Sanchez-Roig MJ, Rivera J, Moraleda JM, Garcia VV. Quantitative defect of glycoprotein Ib in severe cirrhotic patients. Am J Hematol. 1994;45(1):10–5.
Pasche B, Ouimet H, Francis S, Loscalzo J. Structural changes in platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa by plasmin: determinants and functional consequences. Blood. 1994;83(2):404–14.
Cahill PA, Redmond EM, Sitzmann JV. Endothelial dysfunction in cirrhosis and portal hypertension. Pharmacol Ther. 2001;89(3):273–93.
Desai K, Mistry P, Bagget C, Burroughs AK, Bellamy MF, Owen JS. Inhibition of platelet aggregation by abnormal high density lipoprotein particles in plasma from patients with hepatic cirrhosis. Lancet (London, England). 1989;1(8640):693–5.
Turitto VT, Baumgartner HR. Platelet interaction with subendothelium in a perfusion system: physical role of red blood cells. Microvasc Res. 1975;9(3):335–44.
Tripodi A, Primignani M, Chantarangkul V, Clerici M, Dell'Era A, Fabris F, et al. Thrombin generation in patients with cirrhosis: the role of platelets. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 2006;44(2):440–5.
Lisman T, Adelmeijer J, de Groot PG, Janssen HL, Leebeek FW. No evidence for an intrinsic platelet defect in patients with liver cirrhosis—studies under flow conditions. J Thromb Haemost. 2006;4(9):2070–2.
Caldwell SH, Hoffman M, Lisman T, Macik BG, Northup PG, Reddy KR, et al. Coagulation disorders and hemostasis in liver disease: pathophysiology and critical assessment of current management. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 2006;44(4):1039–46.
Brophy MT, Fiore L, Deykin D. Hemostasis. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1996.
Steib A, Gengenwin N, Freys G, Boudjema K, Levy S, Otteni JC. Predictive factors of hyperfibrinolytic activity during liver transplantation in cirrhotic patients. Br J Anaesth. 1994;73(5):645–8.
Pernambuco JR, Langley PG, Hughes RD, Izumi S, Williams R. Activation of the fibrinolytic system in patients with fulminant liver failure. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 1993;18(6):1350–6.
Gunawan B, Runyon B. The efficacy and safety of epsilon-aminocaproic acid treatment in patients with cirrhosis and hyperfibrinolysis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006;23(1):115–20.
Hu KQ, Yu AS, Tiyyagura L, Redeker AG, Reynolds TB. Hyperfibrinolytic activity in hospitalized cirrhotic patients in a referral liver unit. Am J Gastroenterol. 2001;96(5):1581–6.
Boks AL, Brommer EJ, Schalm SW, Van Vliet HH. Hemostasis and fibrinolysis in severe liver failure and their relation to hemorrhage. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 1986;6(1):79–86.
Leebeek FW, Kluft C, Knot EA, de Maat MP, Wilson JH. A shift in balance between profibrinolytic and antifibrinolytic factors causes enhanced fibrinolysis in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology. 1991;101(5):1382–90.
Ferro D, Quintarelli C, Saliola M, Alessandri C, Basili S, Bonavita MS, et al. Prevalence of hyperfibrinolysis in patients with liver cirrhosis. Fibrinolysis. 1993;7:59–62.
Kujovich JL. Hemostatic defects in end stage liver disease. Crit Care Clin. 2005;21(3):563–87.
Stein SF, Harker LA. Kinetic and functional studies of platelets, fibrinogen, and plasminogen in patients with hepatic cirrhosis. J Lab Clin Med. 1982;99(2):217–30.
Aoki N, Yamanaka T. The alpha2-plasmin inhibitor levels in liver diseases. Clin Chim Acta. 1978;84(1–2):99–105.
Knot EA, Drijfhout HR, ten Cate JW, de Jong E, Iburg AH, Kahle LH, et al. alpha 2-Plasmin inhibitor metabolism in patients with liver cirrhosis. J Lab Clin Med. 1985;105(3):353–8.
Marongiu F, Mamusa AM, Mameli G, Mulas G, Solinas A, Demelia L, et al. alpha 2 Antiplasmin and disseminated intravascular coagulation in liver cirrhosis. Thromb Res. 1985;37(2):287–94.
Gram J, Jespersen J, Ingeberg S, Bentsen KD, Bach E. Plasma histidine-rich glycoprotein and plasminogen in patients with liver disease. Thromb Res. 1985;39(4):411–7.
Leebeek FW, Kluft C, Knot EA, De Maat MP. Histidine-rich glycoprotein is elevated in mild liver cirrhosis and decreased in moderate and severe liver cirrhosis. J Lab Clin Med. 1989;113(4):493–7.
Biland L, Duckert F, Prisender S, Nyman D. Quantitative estimation of coagulation factors in liver disease. The diagnostic and prognostic value of factor XIII, factor V and plasminogen. Thromb Haemost. 1978;39(3):646–56.
Bajzar L, Manuel R, Nesheim ME. Purification and characterization of TAFI, a thrombin-activable fibrinolysis inhibitor. J Biol Chem. 1995;270(24):14477–84.
Hendriks D, Wang W, Scharpe S, Lommaert MP, van Sande M. Purification and characterization of a new arginine carboxypeptidase in human serum. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1990;1034(1):86–92.
Wang W, Hendriks DF, Scharpe SS. Carboxypeptidase U, a plasma carboxypeptidase with high affinity for plasminogen. J Biol Chem. 1994;269(22):15937–44.
Rijken DC, Emeis JJ. Clearance of the heavy and light polypeptide chains of human tissue-type plasminogen activator in rats. Biochem J. 1986;238(3):643–6.
Einarsson M, Smedsrod B, Pertoft H. Uptake and degradation of tissue plasminogen activator in rat liver. Thromb Haemost. 1988;59(3):474–9.
Amitrano L, Guardascione MA, Brancaccio V, Balzano A. Coagulation disorders in liver disease. Semin Liver Dis. 2002;22(1):83–96.
Violi F, Ferro D, Basili S, Quintarelli C, Musca A, Cordova C, et al. Hyperfibrinolysis resulting from clotting activation in patients with different degrees of cirrhosis. The CALC Group. Coagulation Abnormalities in Liver Cirrhosis. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 1993;17(1):78–83.
Van Thiel DH, George M, Fareed J. Low levels of thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI) in patients with chronic liver disease. Thromb Haemost. 2001;85(4):667–70.
Colucci M, Binetti BM, Branca MG, Clerici C, Morelli A, Semeraro N, et al. Deficiency of thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor in cirrhosis is associated with increased plasma fibrinolysis. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 2003;38(1):230–7.
Lisman T, Leebeek FW, Mosnier LO, Bouma BN, Meijers JC, Janssen HL, et al. Thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor deficiency in cirrhosis is not associated with increased plasma fibrinolysis. Gastroenterology. 2001;121(1):131–9.
Aytac S, Turkay C, Bavbek N, Kosar A. Hemostasis and global fibrinolytic capacity in chronic liver disease. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2007;18(7):623–6.
Hambleton J, Leung LL, Levi M. Coagulation: consultative hemostasis. In: American Society of Hematology Education Program, editor. Hematology/the Education Program of the American Society of Hematology; 2002. p. 335–52.
Senzolo M, Burra P, Cholongitas E, Burroughs AK. New insights into the coagulopathy of liver disease and liver transplantation. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12(48):7725–36.
Porte RJ. Coagulation and fibrinolysis in orthotopic liver transplantation: current views and insights. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1993;19(3):191–6.
Homatas J, Wasantapruek S, Von Kaulla E, Von Kaulla KN, Eiseman B. Clotting abnormalities following orthotopic and heterotopic transplantation of marginally preserved pig livers. Acta Hepatosplenol. 1971;18(1):14–26.
Porte RJ, Bontempo FA, Knot EA, Lewis JH, Kang YG, Starzl TE. Systemic effects of tissue plasminogen activator-associated fibrinolysis and its relation to thrombin generation in orthotopic liver transplantation. Transplantation. 1989;47(6):978–84.
Iwakiri Y, Groszmann RJ. Vascular endothelial dysfunction in cirrhosis. J Hepatol. 2007;46(5):927–34.
Gupta TK, Toruner M, Chung MK, Groszmann RJ. Endothelial dysfunction and decreased production of nitric oxide in the intrahepatic microcirculation of cirrhotic rats. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 1998;28(4):926–31.
Rockey DC, Chung JJ. Reduced nitric oxide production by endothelial cells in cirrhotic rat liver: endothelial dysfunction in portal hypertension. Gastroenterology. 1998;114(2):344–51.
Sarela AI, Mihaimeed FM, Batten JJ, Davidson BR, Mathie RT. Hepatic and splanchnic nitric oxide activity in patients with cirrhosis. Gut. 1999;44(5):749–53.
Graupera M, Garcia-Pagan JC, Pares M, Abraldes JG, Rosello J, Bosch J, et al. Cyclooxygenase-1 inhibition corrects endothelial dysfunction in cirrhotic rat livers. J Hepatol. 2003;39(4):515–21.
Graupera M, March S, Engel P, Rodes J, Bosch J, Garcia-Pagan JC. Sinusoidal endothelial COX-1-derived prostanoids modulate the hepatic vascular tone of cirrhotic rat livers. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2005;288(4):G763–70.
Iwakiri Y, Groszmann RJ. The hyperdynamic circulation of chronic liver diseases: from the patient to the molecule. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 2006;43(2 Suppl 1):S121–31.
Groszmann RJ, Abraldes JG. Portal hypertension: from bedside to bench. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2005;39(4 Suppl 2):S125–30.
Wiest R, Groszmann RJ. The paradox of nitric oxide in cirrhosis and portal hypertension: too much, not enough. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 2002;35(2):478–91.
Rand ML, Leung R, Packham MA. Platelet function assays. Transfus Apher Sci. 2003;28(3):307–17.
Rodgers RP, Levin J. A critical reappraisal of the bleeding time. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1990;16:1):1–20.
de Franchis R, Arcidiacono PG, Carpinelli L, Andreoni B, Cestari L, Brunati S, et al. Randomized controlled trial of desmopressin plus terlipressin vs. terlipressin alone for the treatment of acute variceal hemorrhage in cirrhotic patients: a multicenter, double-blind study. New Italian Endoscopic Club. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 1993;18(5):1102–7.
Wong AY, Irwin MG, Hui TW, Fung SK, Fan ST, Ma ES. Desmopressin does not decrease blood loss and transfusion requirements in patients undergoing hepatectomy. Can J Anaesth. 2003;50(1):14–20.
Pivalizza EG, Warters RD, Gebhard R. Desmopressin before liver transplantation. Can J Anaesth. 2003;50(7):748–9.
Kundu SK, Heilmann EJ, Sio R, Garcia C, Davidson RM, Ostgaard RA. Description of an in vitro platelet function analyzer—PFA-100. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1995;21(Suppl 2):106–12.
Quick AJ. The prothrombin in hemophilia and in obstructive jaundice. J Biol Chem. 1935;109:73–4.
Olson JD, Brandt JT, Chandler WL, Van Cott EM, Cunningham MT, Hayes TE, et al. Laboratory reporting of the international normalized ratio: progress and problems. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2007;131(11):1641–7.
Trotter JF, Brimhall B, Arjal R, Phillips C. Specific laboratory methodologies achieve higher model for endstage liver disease (MELD) scores for patients listed for liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2004;10(8):995–1000.
Kovacs MJ, Wong A, MacKinnon K, Weir K, Keeney M, Boyle E, et al. Assessment of the validity of the INR system for patients with liver impairment. Thromb Haemost. 1994;71(6):727–30.
Denson KW, Reed SV, Haddon ME, Woodhams B, Brucato C, Ruiz J. Comparative studies of rabbit and human recombinant tissue factor reagents. Thromb Res. 1999;94(4):255–61.
Robert A, Chazouilleres O. Prothrombin time in liver failure: time, ratio, activity percentage, or international normalized ratio? Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 1996;24(6):1392–4.
Ewe K. Bleeding after liver biopsy does not correlate with indices of peripheral coagulation. Dig Dis Sci. 1981;26(5):388–93.
Segal JB, Dzik WH. Paucity of studies to support that abnormal coagulation test results predict bleeding in the setting of invasive procedures: an evidence-based review. Transfusion. 2005;45(9):1413–25.
Diaz LK, Teruya J. Liver biopsy. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(26):2030.
Terjung B, Lemnitzer I, Dumoulin FL, Effenberger W, Brackmann HH, Sauerbruch T, et al. Bleeding complications after percutaneous liver biopsy. An analysis of risk factors. Digestion. 2003;67(3):138–45.
Bravo AA, Sheth SG, Chopra S. Liver biopsy. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(7):495–500.
Dahlback B. Progress in the understanding of the protein C anticoagulant pathway. Int J Hematol. 2004;79(2):109–16.
Reikvam H, Steien E, Hauge B, Liseth K, Hagen KG, Storkson R, et al. Thrombelastography. Transfus Apher Sci. 2009;40(2):119–23.
Di Cera E. Thrombin as procoagulant and anticoagulant. J Thromb Haemost. 2007;5(Suppl 1):196–202.
Bombeli T, Spahn DR. Updates in perioperative coagulation: physiology and management of thromboembolism and haemorrhage. Br J Anaesth. 2004;93(2):275–87.
Kang YG, Martin DJ, Marquez J, Lewis JH, Bontempo FA, Shaw BW Jr, et al. Intraoperative changes in blood coagulation and thrombelastographic monitoring in liver transplantation. Anesth Analg. 1985;64(9):888–96.
Koh MB, Hunt BJ. The management of perioperative bleeding. Blood Rev. 2003;17(3):179–85.
Stravitz RT, Lisman T, Luketic VA, Sterling RK, Puri P, Fuchs M, et al. Minimal effects of acute liver injury/acute liver failure on hemostasis as assessed by thromboelastography. J Hepatol. 2012;56(1):129–36.
Hendriks HG, van der Meer J, de Wolf JT, Peeters PM, Porte RJ, de Jong K, et al. Intraoperative blood transfusion requirement is the main determinant of early surgical re-intervention after orthotopic liver transplantation. Transpl Int. 2005;17(11):673–9.
Cacciarelli TV, Keeffe EB, Moore DH, Burns W, Busque S, Concepcion W, et al. Effect of intraoperative blood transfusion on patient outcome in hepatic transplantation. Arch Surg (Chicago, Ill: 1960). 1999;134(1):25–9.
Stainsby D, Williamson L, Jones H, Cohen H. 6 Years of shot reporting—its influence on UK blood safety. Transfus Apher Sci. 2004;31(2):123–31.
de Boer MT, Molenaar IQ, Hendriks HG, Slooff MJ, Porte RJ. Minimizing blood loss in liver transplantation: progress through research and evolution of techniques. Dig Surg. 2005;22(4):265–75.
Porte RJ, Hendriks HG, Slooff MJ. Blood conservation in liver transplantation: the role of aprotinin. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2004;18(4 Suppl):31S–7S.
Ramos E, Dalmau A, Sabate A, Lama C, Llado L, Figueras J, et al. Intraoperative red blood cell transfusion in liver transplantation: influence on patient outcome, prediction of requirements, and measures to reduce them. Liver Transpl. 2003;9(12):1320–7.
O’Shaughnessy DF, Atterbury C, Bolton Maggs P, Murphy M, Thomas D, Yates S, et al. Guidelines for the use of fresh-frozen plasma, cryoprecipitate and cryosupernatant. Br J Haematol. 2004;126(1):11–28.
Goodnough LT, Johnston MF, Shah T, Chernosky A. A two-institution study of transfusion practice in 78 consecutive adult elective open-heart procedures. Am J Clin Pathol. 1989;91(4):468–72.
Dara SI, Rana R, Afessa B, Moore SB, Gajic O. Fresh frozen plasma transfusion in critically ill medical patients with coagulopathy. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(11):2667–71.
Burns ER, Goldberg SN, Wenz B. Paradoxic effect of multiple mild coagulation factor deficiencies on the prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time. Am J Clin Pathol. 1993;100(2):94–8.
Dzik WH. Predicting hemorrhage using preoperative coagulation screening assays. Curr Hematol Rep. 2004;3(5):324–30.
Massicotte L, Beaulieu D, Thibeault L, Roy JD, Marleau D, Lapointe R, et al. Coagulation defects do not predict blood product requirements during liver transplantation. Transplantation. 2008;85(7):956–62.
MacLennan S, Williamson LM. Risks of fresh frozen plasma and platelets. J Trauma. 2006;60(6 Suppl):S46–50.
Holness L, Knippen MA, Simmons L, Lachenbruch PA. Fatalities caused by TRALI. Transfus Med Rev. 2004;18(3):184–8.
Toy P, Popovsky MA, Abraham E, Ambruso DR, Holness LG, Kopko PM, et al. Transfusion-related acute lung injury: definition and review. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(4):721–6.
Fresh frozen plasma use. [Internet]. Available from: http://www.shotuk.org.
Massicotte L, Lenis S, Thibeault L, Sassine MP, Seal RF, Roy A. Effect of low central venous pressure and phlebotomy on blood product transfusion requirements during liver transplantations. Liver Transpl. 2006;12(1):117–23.
Massicotte L, Sassine MP, Lenis S, Seal RF, Roy A. Survival rate changes with transfusion of blood products during liver transplantation. Can J Anaesth. 2005;52(2):148–55.
American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Perioperative Blood Transfusion and Adjuvant Therapies. Practice guidelines for perioperative blood transfusion and adjuvant therapies: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Perioperative Blood Transfusion and Adjuvant Therapies. Anesthesiology. 2006;105(1):198–208.
Sindram D, Porte RJ, Hoffman MR, Bentley RC, Clavien PA. Platelets induce sinusoidal endothelial cell apoptosis upon reperfusion of the cold ischemic rat liver. Gastroenterology. 2000;118(1):183–91.
Cywes R, Packham MA, Tietze L, Sanabria JR, Harvey PR, Phillips MJ, et al. Role of platelets in hepatic allograft preservation injury in the rat. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 1993;18(3):635–47.
Porte RJ, Blauw E, Knot EA, de Maat MP, de Ruiter C, Minke Bakker C, et al. Role of the donor liver in the origin of platelet disorders and hyperfibrinolysis in liver transplantation. J Hepatol. 1994;21(4):592–600.
Lesurtel M, Graf R, Aleil B, Walther DJ, Tian Y, Jochum W, et al. Platelet-derived serotonin mediates liver regeneration. Science. 2006;312(5770):104–7.
Himmelreich G, Hundt K, Neuhaus P, Roissant R, Riess H. Decreased platelet aggregation after reperfusion in orthotopic liver transplantation. Transplantation. 1992;53(3):582–6.
Himmelreich G, Hundt K, Isenberg C, Bechstein WO, Neuhaus P, Riess H. Thrombocytopenia and platelet dysfunction in orthotopic liver transplantation. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1993;19(3):209–12.
Day JR, Punjabi PP, Randi AM, Haskard DO, Landis RC, Taylor KM. Clinical inhibition of the seven-transmembrane thrombin receptor (PAR1) by intravenous aprotinin during cardiothoracic surgery. Circulation. 2004;110(17):2597–600.
Federici AB, Berkowitz SD, Lattuada A, Mannucci PM. Degradation of von Willebrand factor in patients with acquired clinical conditions in which there is heightened proteolysis. Blood. 1993;81(3):720–5.
Porte RJ, Leebeek FW. Pharmacological strategies to decrease transfusion requirements in patients undergoing surgery. Drugs. 2002;62(15):2193–211.
Schalm SW, Terpstra JL, Achterberg JR, Noordhoek Hegt V, Haverkate F, Popescu DT, et al. Orthotopic liver transplantation: an experimental study on mechanisms of hemorrhagic diathesis and thrombosis. Surgery. 1975;78(4):499–507.
de Boer MT, Christensen MC, Asmussen M, van der Hilst CS, Hendriks HG, Slooff MJ, et al. The impact of intraoperative transfusion of platelets and red blood cells on survival after liver transplantation. Anesth Analg. 2008;106(1):32–44; table of contents.
Dalmau A, Sabate A, Koo M, Rafecas A, Figueras J, Jaurrieta E. Prophylactic use of tranexamic acid and incidence of arterial thrombosis in liver transplantation. Anesth Analg. 2001;93(2):516.
Mor E, Jennings L, Gonwa TA, Holman MJ, Gibbs J, Solomon H, et al. The impact of operative bleeding on outcome in transplantation of the liver. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1993;176(3):219–27.
Grabau CM, Crago SF, Hoff LK, Simon JA, Melton CA, Ott BJ, et al. Performance standards for therapeutic abdominal paracentesis. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 2004;40(2):484–8.
Lin CH, Shih FY, Ma MH, Chiang WC, Yang CW, Ko PC. Should bleeding tendency deter abdominal paracentesis? Dig Liver Dis. 2005;37(12):946–51.
Hanson SR, Slichter SJ. Platelet kinetics in patients with bone marrow hypoplasia: evidence for a fixed platelet requirement. Blood. 1985;66(5):1105–9.
Greeno E, McCullough J, Weisdorf D. Platelet utilization and the transfusion trigger: a prospective analysis. Transfusion. 2007;47(2):201–5.
Cameron B, Rock G, Olberg B, Neurath D. Evaluation of platelet transfusion triggers in a tertiary-care hospital. Transfusion. 2007;47(2):206–11.
Rinder HM, Arbini AA, Snyder EL. Optimal dosing and triggers for prophylactic use of platelet transfusions. Curr Opin Hematol. 1999;6(6):437–41.
Tinmouth AT, Freedman J. Prophylactic platelet transfusions: which dose is the best dose? A review of the literature. Transfus Med Rev. 2003;17(3):181–93.
Schlossberg HR, Herman JH. Platelet dosing. Transfus Apher Sci. 2003;28(3):221–6.
American Association of Blood Banks. Blood transfusion therapy: a physician’s handbook. 7th ed. Bethesda, MD: American Association of Blood Banks; 2002.
Rebulla P, Finazzi G, Marangoni F, Avvisati G, Gugliotta L, Tognoni G, et al. The threshold for prophylactic platelet transfusions in adults with acute myeloid leukemia. Gruppo Italiano Malattie Ematologiche Maligne dell’Adulto. N Engl J Med. 1997;337(26):1870–5.
Rebulla P. In vitro and in vivo properties of various types of platelets. Vox Sang. 1998;74(Suppl 2):217–22.
Stanca CM, Montazem AH, Lawal A, Zhang JX, Schiano TD. Intranasal desmopressin versus blood transfusion in cirrhotic patients with coagulopathy undergoing dental extraction: a randomized controlled trial. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2010;68(1):138–43.
Laupacis A, Fergusson D. Drugs to minimize perioperative blood loss in cardiac surgery: meta-analyses using perioperative blood transfusion as the outcome. The International Study of Peri-operative Transfusion (ISPOT) Investigators. Anesth Analg. 1997;85(6):1258–67.
Levi M, Cromheecke ME, de Jonge E, Prins MH, de Mol BJ, Briet E, et al. Pharmacological strategies to decrease excessive blood loss in cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis of clinically relevant endpoints. Lancet (London, England). 1999;354(9194):1940–7.
Theroux MC, Corddry DH, Tietz AE, Miller F, Peoples JD, Kettrick RG. A study of desmopressin and blood loss during spinal fusion for neuromuscular scoliosis: a randomized, controlled, double-blinded study. Anesthesiology. 1997;87(2):260–7.
Arshad F, Stoof SC, Leebeek FW, Ruitenbeek K, Adelmeijer J, Blokzijl H, et al. Infusion of DDAVP does not improve primary hemostasis in patients with cirrhosis. Liver Int. 2015;35(7):1809–15.
Henry DA, Moxey AJ, Carless PA, O'Connell D, McClelland B, Henderson KM, et al. Anti-fibrinolytic use for minimising perioperative allogeneic blood transfusion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;1:CD001886.
Kang Y, Lewis JH, Navalgund A, Russell MW, Bontempo FA, Niren LS, et al. Epsilon-aminocaproic acid for treatment of fibrinolysis during liver transplantation. Anesthesiology. 1987;66(6):766–73.
Dalmau A, Sabate A, Acosta F, Garcia-Huete L, Koo M, Sansano T, et al. Tranexamic acid reduces red cell transfusion better than epsilon-aminocaproic acid or placebo in liver transplantation. Anesth Analg. 2000;91(1):29–34.
Boylan JF, Klinck JR, Sandler AN, Arellano R, Greig PD, Nierenberg H, et al. Tranexamic acid reduces blood loss, transfusion requirements, and coagulation factor use in primary orthotopic liver transplantation. Anesthesiology. 1996;85(5):1043–8. discussion 30A-31A.
van’t Veer C, Mann KG. The regulation of the factor VII-dependent coagulation pathway: rationale for the effectiveness of recombinant factor VIIa in refractory bleeding disorders. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2000;26(4):367–72.
Butenas S, Brummel KE, Bouchard BA, Mann KG. How factor VIIa works in hemophilia. J Thromb Haemost. 2003;1(6):1158–60.
Butenas S, Brummel KE, Paradis SG, Mann KG. Influence of factor VIIa and phospholipids on coagulation in “acquired” hemophilia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003;23(1):123–9.
Monroe DM, Hoffman M, Oliver JA, Roberts HR. Platelet activity of high-dose factor VIIa is independent of tissue factor. Br J Haematol. 1997;99(3):542–7.
Pusateri AE, Park MS. Mechanistic implications for the use and monitoring of recombinant activated factor VII in trauma. Crit Care. 2005;9(Suppl 5):S15–24.
Dutton RP, McCunn M, Hyder M, D'Angelo M, O'Connor J, Hess JR, et al. Factor VIIa for correction of traumatic coagulopathy. J Trauma. 2004;57(4):709–18. discussion 18-9.
Boehlen F, Morales MA, Fontana P, Ricou B, Irion O, de Moerloose P. Prolonged treatment of massive postpartum haemorrhage with recombinant factor VIIa: case report and review of the literature. BJOG. 2004;111(3):284–7.
Deveras RA, Kessler CM. Reversal of warfarin-induced excessive anticoagulation with recombinant human factor VIIa concentrate. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137(11):884–8.
Bernstein DE, Jeffers L, Erhardtsen E, Reddy KR, Glazer S, Squiban P, et al. Recombinant factor VIIa corrects prothrombin time in cirrhotic patients: a preliminary study. Gastroenterology. 1997;113(6):1930–7.
Lisman T, Leebeek FW, Meijer K, Van Der Meer J, Nieuwenhuis HK, De Groot PG. Recombinant factor VIIa improves clot formation but not fibrolytic potential in patients with cirrhosis and during liver transplantation. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD). 2002;35(3):616–21.
Kalicinski P, Kaminski A, Drewniak T, Ismail H, Szymczak M, Markiewicz M, et al. Quick correction of hemostasis in two patients with fulminant liver failure undergoing liver transplantation by recombinant activated factor VII. Transplant Proc. 1999;31(1–2):378–9.
Hendriks HG, Meijer K, de Wolf JT, Klompmaker IJ, Porte RJ, de Kam PJ, et al. Reduced transfusion requirements by recombinant factor VIIa in orthotopic liver transplantation: a pilot study. Transplantation. 2001;71(3):402–5.
Surudo T, Wojcicki M, Milkiewicz P, Czuprynska M, Lubikowski J, Jarosz K, et al. Rapid correction of prothrombin time after low-dose recombinant factor VIIA in patients undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation. Transplant Proc. 2003;35(6):2323–5.
Niemann CU, Behrends M, Quan D, Eilers H, Gropper MA, Roberts JP, et al. Recombinant factor VIIa reduces transfusion requirements in liver transplant patients with high MELD scores. Transfus Med (Oxford, England). 2006;16(2):93–100.
Kalicinski P, Markiewicz M, Kaminski A, Laniewski P, Ismail H, Drewniak T, et al. Single pretransplant bolus of recombinant activated factor VII ameliorates influence of risk factors for blood loss during orthotopic liver transplantation. Pediatr Transplant. 2005;9(3):299–304.
Planinsic RM, van der Meer J, Testa G, Grande L, Candela A, Porte RJ, et al. Safety and efficacy of a single bolus administration of recombinant factor VIIa in liver transplantation due to chronic liver disease. Liver Transpl. 2005;11(8):895–900.
Lodge JP, Jonas S, Jones RM, Olausson M, Mir-Pallardo J, Soefelt S, et al. Efficacy and safety of repeated perioperative doses of recombinant factor VIIa in liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2005;11(8):973–9.
Pugliese F, Ruberto F, Summonti D, Perrella S, Cappannoli A, Tosi A, et al. Activated recombinant factor VII in orthotopic liver transplantation. Transplant Proc. 2007;39(6):1883–5.
Chavez-Tapia NC, Alfaro-Lara R, Tellez-Avila F, Barrientos-Gutierrez T, Gonzalez-Chon O, Mendez-Sanchez N, et al. Prophylactic activated recombinant factor VII in liver resection and liver transplantation: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2011;6(7):e22581.
Vincent JL, Rossaint R, Riou B, Ozier Y, Zideman D, Spahn DR. Recommendations on the use of recombinant activated factor VII as an adjunctive treatment for massive bleeding—a European perspective. Crit Care (London, England). 2006;10(4):R120.
Berrevoet F, de Hemptinne B. Use of topical hemostatic agents during liver resection. Dig Surg. 2007;24(4):288–93.
Heaton N. Advances and methods in liver surgery: haemostasis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;17(Suppl 1):S3–12.
Chapman WC, Clavien PA, Fung J, Khanna A, Bonham A. Effective control of hepatic bleeding with a novel collagen-based composite combined with autologous plasma: results of a randomized controlled trial. Arch Surg (Chicago, Ill: 1960). 2000;135(10):1200–4. discussion 5.
Carless PA, Henry DA, Anthony DM. Fibrin sealant use for minimising peri-operative allogeneic blood transfusion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003(2):CD004171.
Figueras J, Llado L, Miro M, Ramos E, Torras J, Fabregat J, et al. Application of fibrin glue sealant after hepatectomy does not seem justified: results of a randomized study in 300 patients. Ann Surg. 2007;245(4):536–42.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Banini, B.A., Sanyal, A.J. (2018). Coagulopathy: Pathophysiology, Evaluation, and Treatment. In: Wagener, G. (eds) Liver Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64298-7_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64298-7_15
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-64297-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-64298-7
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)