Abstract
Cryptococcosis is a fungal disease caused by Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii. Lung disease and meningocephalitis are the most common clinical outcomes of cryptococcosis, especially in immunosuppressed patients. Current estimates suggest 278,000 cases of human cryptococcal meningitis annually. This syndrome is fatal if untreated. Treatment of cryptococcosis is expensive and poorly effective. This complex scenario makes clear the need for innovation in the field of Cryptococcus and cryptococcosis.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Kwon-Chung KJ et al (2014) Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the etiologic agents of cryptococcosis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 4(7):a019760
Kidd SE et al (2004) A rare genotype of Cryptococcus gattii caused the cryptococcosis outbreak on Vancouver Island (British Columbia, Canada). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101(49):17258–17263
Dromer F, Casadevall A, Perfect JR, Sorrell T (2011) Cryptococcus neoformans: latency and disease. In: Heitman J, Kozel TR, Kwon-Chung KJ, Perfect JR, Casadevall A (eds) Cryptococcus: from human pathogen to model yeast. American Society for Microbiology, USA, pp 431–439
Park BJ et al (2009) Estimation of the current global burden of cryptococcal meningitis among persons living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS 23(4):525–530
Denning DW (2016) Minimizing fungal disease deaths will allow the UNAIDS target of reducing annual AIDS deaths below 500 000 by 2020 to be realized. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci 371(1709):1–10
Harris J, Lockhart S, Chiller T (2012) Cryptococcus gattii: where do we go from here? Med Mycol 50(2):113–129
Rodrigues ML (2016) Funding and innovation in diseases of neglected populations: the paradox of cryptococcal meningitis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10(3):e0004429
Srikanta D, Santiago-Tirado FH, Doering TL (2014) Cryptococcus neoformans: historical curiosity to modern pathogen. Yeast 31(2):47–60
Maziarz EK, Perfect JR (2016) Cryptococcosis. Infect Dis Clin N Am 30(1):179–206
Chen M et al (2016) Cryptococcosis and tuberculosis co-infection in mainland China. Emerg Microbes Infect 5(9):e98
Sorrell TC, Chen SCA, Phillips P, Marr KA (2011) Clinical perspectives on cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii: implications for diagnosis and management. In: Heitman J, Kozel TR, Kwon-Chung KJ, Perfect JR, Casadevall A (eds) Cryptococcus: from human pathogen to model yeast. American Society for Microbiology, USA, pp 595–606
Vallabhaneni S et al (2016) The global burden of fungal diseases. Infect Dis Clin N Am 30(1):1–11
Du L et al (2015) Systemic review of published reports on primary cutaneous cryptococcosis in immunocompetent patients. Mycopathologia 180(1–2):19–25
Haddad N et al (2015) Pulmonary cryptococcoma: a rare and challenging diagnosis in immunocompetent patients. Autops Case Rep 5(2):35–40
Chen SC, Meyer W, Sorrell TC (2014) Cryptococcus gattii infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 27(4):980–1024
Santos WRAD et al (2008) Primary endemic Cryptococcosis gattii by molecular type VGII in the state of Pará, Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 103:813–818
Galanis E et al (2009) Clinical presentation, diagnosis and management of Cryptococcus gattii cases: Lessons learned from British Columbia. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 20(1):23–28
Gullo FP et al (2013) Cryptococcosis: epidemiology, fungal resistance, and new alternatives for treatment. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 32(11):1377–1391
Lin X, Heitman J (2006) The biology of the Cryptococcus neoformans species complex. Annu Rev Microbiol 60:69–105
Brito-Santos F et al (2015) Environmental isolation of Cryptococcus gattii VGII from indoor dust from typical wooden houses in the deep Amazonas of the Rio Negro basin. PLoS One 10(2):e0115866
Takahara DT et al (2013) First report on Cryptococcus neoformans in pigeon excreta from public and residential locations in the metropolitan area of Cuiaba, State of Mato Grosso, Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 55(6):371–376
Jesus MSD et al (2012) Cryptococcus neoformans carried by Odontomachus bauri ants. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 107:466–469
Cattana ME et al (2014) Native trees of the Northeast Argentine: natural hosts of the Cryptococcus neoformans-Cryptococcus gattii species complex. Rev Iberoam Micol 31(3):188–192
Springer DJ, Chaturvedi V (2010) Projecting global occurrence of Cryptococcus gattii. Emerg Infect Dis 16(1):14–20
Cogliati M (2013) Global molecular epidemiology of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii: an atlas of the molecular types. Scientifica 2013:23
Fraser JA et al (2005) Same-sex mating and the origin of the Vancouver Island Cryptococcus gattii outbreak. Nature 437(7063):1360–1364
Hagen F et al (2013) Ancient dispersal of the human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus gattii from the Amazon rainforest. PLoS One 8(8):e71148
Souto AC et al (2016) Population genetic analysis reveals a high genetic diversity in the Brazilian Cryptococcus gattii VGII population and shifts the global origin from the Amazon rainforest to the semi-arid desert in the northeast of Brazil. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10(8):e0004885
Firacative C et al (2016) MLST and whole-genome-based population analysis of Cryptococcus gattii VGIII links clinical, veterinary and environmental strains, and reveals divergent serotype specific sub-populations and distant ancestors. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10(8):e0004861
Baker RD (1976) The primary pulmonary lymph node complex of crytptococcosis. Am J Clin Pathol 65(1):83–92
Goldman DL et al (2001) Serologic evidence for Cryptococcus neoformans infection in early childhood. Pediatrics 107(5):E66
Garcia-Hermoso D, Janbon G, Dromer F (1999) Epidemiological evidence for dormant Cryptococcus neoformans infection. J Clin Microbiol 37(10):3204–3209
Chen S et al (2000) Epidemiology and host- and variety-dependent characteristics of infection due to Cryptococcus neoformans in Australia and New Zealand. Australasian Cryptococcal Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 31(2):499–508
Mitchell DH et al (1995) Cryptococcal disease of the CNS in immunocompetent hosts: influence of cryptococcal variety on clinical manifestations and outcome. Clin Infect Dis 20(3):611–616
Speed B, Dunt D (1995) Clinical and host differences between infections with the two varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans. Clin Infect Dis 21(1):28–34, discussion 35–36
Chayakulkeeree M, Perfect JR (2006) Cryptococcosis. Infect Dis Clin N Am 20(3):507–544, v–vi
Chang WC et al (2006) Pulmonary cryptococcosis: comparison of clinical and radiographic characteristics in immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients. Chest 129(2):333–340
Shirley RM, Baddley JW (2009) Cryptococcal lung disease. Curr Opin Pulm Med 15(3):254–260
Nadrous HF et al (2003) Pulmonary cryptococcosis in nonimmunocompromised patients. Chest 124(6):2143–2147
Phillips P et al (2015) Longitudinal clinical findings and outcome among patients with Cryptococcus gattii infection in British Columbia. Clin Infect Dis 60(9):1368–1376
Murray RJ et al (1988) Recovery from cryptococcemia and the adult respiratory distress syndrome in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Chest 93(6):1304–1306
Brizendine KD, Baddley JW, Pappas PG (2011) Pulmonary cryptococcosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 32(6):727–734
Nunez M, Peacock JE Jr, Chin R Jr (2000) Pulmonary cryptococcosis in the immunocompetent host. Therapy with oral fluconazole: a report of four cases and a review of the literature. Chest 118(2):527–534
McMullan BJ, Sorrell TC, Chen SC (2013) Cryptococcus gattii infections: contemporary aspects of epidemiology, clinical manifestations and management of infection. Future Microbiol 8(12):1613–1631
Colombo AC, Rodrigues ML (2015) Fungal colonization of the brain: anatomopathological aspects of neurological cryptococcosis. An Acad Bras Cienc 87(2 Suppl):1293–1309
Ecevit IZ et al (2006) The poor prognosis of central nervous system cryptococcosis among nonimmunosuppressed patients: a call for better disease recognition and evaluation of adjuncts to antifungal therapy. Clin Infect Dis 42(10):1443–1447
Lui G et al (2006) Cryptococcosis in apparently immunocompetent patients. QJM 99(3):143–151
Fries BC et al (2005) Phenotypic switching of Cryptococcus neoformans can produce variants that elicit increased intracranial pressure in a rat model of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis. Infect Immun 73(3):1779–1787
Okun E, Butler WT (1964) Ophthalmologic complications of Cryptococcal meningitis. Arch Ophthalmol 71:52–57
Custis PH, Haller JA, de Juan E Jr (1995) An unusual case of cryptococcal endophthalmitis. Retina 15(4):300–304
Perfect JR, Bicanic T (2015) Cryptococcosis diagnosis and treatment: what do we know now. Fungal Genet Biol 78:49–54
Chiriac A et al (2017) Primary cutaneous cryptococcosis during infliximab therapy. Dermatol Ther 30(1):1–3
Kwon-Chung KJ et al (2000) Cryptococcosis: clinical and biological aspects. Med Mycol 38(Suppl 1):205–213
Wilson ML, Sewell LD, Mowad CM (2008) Primary cutaneous Cryptococcosis during therapy with methotrexate and adalimumab. J Drugs Dermatol 7(1):53–54
Revenga F et al (2002) Primary cutaneous cryptococcosis in an immunocompetent host: case report and review of the literature. Dermatology 204(2):145–149
Neuville S et al (2003) Primary cutaneous cryptococcosis: a distinct clinical entity. Clin Infect Dis 36(3):337–347
Dora JM et al (2006) Cutaneous cryptococccosis due to Cryptococcus gattii in immunocompetent hosts: case report and review. Mycopathologia 161(4):235–238
Probst C et al (2010) Cryptococcosis mimicking cutaneous cellulitis in a patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis: a case report. BMC Infect Dis 10:239
Manrique P et al (1992) Polymorphous cutaneous cryptococcosis: nodular, herpes-like, and molluscum-like lesions in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 26(1):122–124
Wykoff CC et al (2009) Intraocular cryptococcoma. Arch Ophthalmol 127(5):700–702
Alzahrani YA et al (2016) Cryptococcal iridociliary granuloma. Surv Ophthalmol 61(4):498–501
Wada R et al (2008) Granulomatous prostatitis due to Cryptococcus neoformans: diagnostic usefulness of special stains and molecular analysis of 18S rDNA. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 11(2):203–206
Siddiqui TJ, Zamani T, Parada JP (2005) Primary cryptococcal prostatitis and correlation with serum prostate specific antigen in a renal transplant recipient. J Infect 51(3):e153–e157
Allen R et al (1982) Disseminated cryptococcosis after transurethral resection of the prostate. Aust NZ J Med 12(4):296–299
Larsen RA et al (1989) Persistent Cryptococcus neoformans infection of the prostate after successful treatment of meningitis. California Collaborative Treatment Group. Ann Intern Med 111(2):125–128
Staib F, Seibold M, L'Age M (1990) Persistence of Cryptococcus neoformans in seminal fluid and urine under itraconazole treatment. The urogenital tract (prostate) as a niche for Cryptococcus neoformans. Mycoses 33(7–8):369–373
Seo IY et al (2006) Granulomatous cryptococcal prostatitis diagnosed by transrectal biopsy. Int J Urol 13(5):638–639
Lief M, Sarfarazi F (1986) Prostatic cryptococcosis in acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Urology 28(4):318–319
Bal CK et al (2014) Spontaneous cryptococcal peritonitis with fungemia in patients with decompensated cirrhosis: Report of two cases. Indian J Crit Care Med 18(8):536–539
Stead KJ et al (1988) Septic arthritis due to Cryptococcus neoformans. J Infect 17(2):139–145
Flagg SD et al (2001) Myositis resulting from disseminated cryptococcosis in a patient with hepatitis C cirrhosis. Clin Infect Dis 32(7):1104–1107
Farr RW, Wright RA (1992) Cryptococcal olecranon bursitis in cirrhosis. J Rheumatol 19(1):172–173
Daly JS et al (1990) Disseminated, nonmeningeal gastrointestinal cryptococcal infection in an HIV-negative patient. Am J Gastroenterol 85(10):1421–1424
Thalla R et al (2009) Sequestration of active Cryptococcus neoformans infection in the parathyroid gland despite prolonged therapy in a renal transplant recipient. Transpl Infect Dis 11(4):349–352
Kantarcioglu AS et al (2006) Cryptococcal parotid involvement: an uncommon localization of Cryptococcus neoformans. Med Mycol 44(3):279–283
Salyer WR et al (1973) Adrenal involvement in cryptococcosis. Am J Clin Pathol 60(4):559–561
Liu PY (1998) Cryptococcal osteomyelitis: case report and review. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 30(1):33–35
Tan DB et al (2008) Immunological profiles of immune restoration disease presenting as mycobacterial lymphadenitis and cryptococcal meningitis. HIV Med 9(5):307–316
Singh N, Perfect JR (2007) Immune reconstitution syndrome associated with opportunistic mycoses. Lancet Infect Dis 7(6):395–401
Nunnari G et al (2013) Cryptococcal meningitis in an HIV-1-infected person: relapses or IRIS? Case report and review of the literature. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 17(11):1555–1559
Crypto Collab Tx Study Gp, Alexander BDSC, Forrest G, Johnson L, Lortholary O, Singh N (2008) Cryptococcus-associated Immune Reconstitution Syndrome (IRS) in Solid Organ Transplant (SOT) recipients: results from a prospective, multicenter study. In 48th annual ICAAC/Infectious Diseases Society of America. Washington, DC
Shelburne SA III et al (2005) The role of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in AIDS-related Cryptococcus neoformans disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 40(7):1049–1052
Chen SC et al (2013) Antifungal therapy and management of complications of cryptococcosis due to Cryptococcus gattii. Clin Infect Dis 57(4):543–551
World Health Organization (2011) Rapid advice: diagnosis, prevention and management of cryptococcal disease in HIV-infected adults, adolescents and children. Geneva
Mesa-Arango AC, Scorzoni L, Zaragoza O (2012) It only takes one to do many jobs: Amphotericin B as antifungal and immunomodulatory drug. Front Microbiol 3:286
Day JN et al (2013) Combination antifungal therapy for cryptococcal meningitis. N Engl J Med 368(14):1291–1302
Bicanic T et al (2008) High-dose amphotericin B with flucytosine for the treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in HIV-infected patients: a randomized trial. Clin Infect Dis 47(1):123–130
Barratt G, Bretagne S (2007) Optimizing efficacy of Amphotericin B through nanomodification. Int J Nanomedicine 2(3):301–313
Loyse A et al (2013) Cryptococcal meningitis: improving access to essential antifungal medicines in resource-poor countries. Lancet Infect Dis 13(7):629–637
Groll AH et al (2003) Clinical pharmacology of antifungal compounds. Infect Dis Clin N Am 17(1):159–191, ix
Brouwer AE et al (2007) Oral versus intravenous flucytosine in patients with human immunodeficiency virus-associated cryptococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51(3):1038–1042
Loyse A et al (2013) Flucytosine and cryptococcosis: time to urgently address the worldwide accessibility of a 50-year-old antifungal. J Antimicrob Chemother 68(11):2435–2444
Harris BE et al (1986) Conversion of 5-fluorocytosine to 5-fluorouracil by human intestinal microflora. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 29(1):44–48
Gray KC et al (2012) Amphotericin primarily kills yeast by simply binding ergosterol. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109(7):2234–2239
Saag MS, Dismukes WE (1988) Azole antifungal agents: emphasis on new triazoles. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32(1):1–8
Hajjeh RA, Brandt ME, Pinner RW (1995) Emergence of cryptococcal disease: epidemiologic perspectives 100 years after its discovery. Epidemiol Rev 17(2):303–320
Antinori S (2013) New Insights into HIV/AIDS-Associated Cryptococcosis. ISRN AIDS 2013:471363
Antinori S et al (2009) AIDS-associated cryptococcosis: a comparison of epidemiology, clinical features and outcome in the pre- and post-HAART eras. Experience of a single centre in Italy. HIV Med 10(1):6–11
Kendi C et al (2013) Predictors of outcome in routine care for Cryptococcal meningitis in Western Kenya: lessons for HIV outpatient care in resource-limited settings. Postgrad Med J 89(1048):73–77
Perfect JR et al (2010) Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the infectious diseases society of america. Clin Infect Dis 50(3):291–322
Brouwer AE et al (2004) Combination antifungal therapies for HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a randomised trial. Lancet 363(9423):1764–1767
Rajasingham R et al (2012) Cryptococcal meningitis treatment strategies in resource-limited settings: a cost-effectiveness analysis. PLoS Med 9(9):e1001316
Southern African HIV Clinicians Society T (2013) Guideline for the prevention, diagnosis and management of cryptococcal meningitis among HIV-infected persons: 2013 update. South Afr J HIV Med 14(2):76
Dromer F et al (2008) Major role for amphotericin B-flucytosine combination in severe cryptococcosis. PLoS One 3(8):e2870
Day JN et al (2011) Most cases of cryptococcal meningitis in HIV-uninfected patients in Vietnam are due to a distinct amplified fragment length polymorphism-defined cluster of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii VN1. J Clin Microbiol 49(2):658–664
Bicanic T et al (2006) Symptomatic relapse of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis after initial fluconazole monotherapy: the role of fluconazole resistance and immune reconstitution. Clin Infect Dis 43(8):1069–1073
van der Horst CM et al (1997) Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group and AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med 337(1):15–21
Bozzette SA et al (1991) A placebo-controlled trial of maintenance therapy with fluconazole after treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. California Collaborative Treatment Group. N Engl J Med 324(9):580–584
Saag MS et al (1999) A comparison of itraconazole versus fluconazole as maintenance therapy for AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 28(2):291–296
Mussini C et al (2004) Discontinuation of maintenance therapy for cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy: an international observational study. Clin Infect Dis 38(4):565–571
Zolopa A et al (2009) Early antiretroviral therapy reduces AIDS progression/death in individuals with acute opportunistic infections: a multicenter randomized strategy trial. PLoS One 4(5):e5575
Chang CC et al (2013) Clinical and mycological predictors of cryptococcosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. AIDS 27(13):2089–2099
Makadzange AT et al (2010) Early versus delayed initiation of antiretroviral therapy for concurrent HIV infection and cryptococcal meningitis in sub-saharan Africa. Clin Infect Dis 50(11):1532–1538
Musubire AK et al (2012) Challenges in diagnosis and management of Cryptococcal immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) in resource limited settings. Afr Health Sci 12(2):226–230
Haddow LJ et al (2010) Cryptococcal immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV-1-infected individuals: proposed clinical case definitions. Lancet Infect Dis 10(11):791–802
Bicanic TA et al (2013) Starting ART following cryptococcal meningitis: the optimal time has yet to be defined. South Afr J HIV Med 14(3):105
Lesho E (2006) Evidence base for using corticosteroids to treat HIV-associated immune reconstitution syndrome. Expert Rev Anti-Infect Ther 4(3):469–478
Husain S, Wagener MM, Singh N (2001) Cryptococcus neoformans infection in organ transplant recipients: variables influencing clinical characteristics and outcome. Emerg Infect Dis 7(3):375–381
La Hoz RM, Pappas PG (2013) Cryptococcal infections: changing epidemiology and implications for therapy. Drugs 73(6):495–504
Davis JA et al (2009) Central nervous system involvement in cryptococcal infection in individuals after solid organ transplantation or with AIDS. Transpl Infect Dis 11(5):432–437
Singh N et al (2005) Antifungal management practices and evolution of infection in organ transplant recipients with Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Transplantation 80(8):1033–1039
Singh N et al (2007) Cryptococcus neoformans in organ transplant recipients: impact of calcineurin-inhibitor agents on mortality. J Infect Dis 195(5):756–764
Karie-Guigues S et al (2009) Long-term renal function in liver transplant recipients and impact of immunosuppressive regimens (calcineurin inhibitors alone or in combination with mycophenolate mofetil): the TRY study. Liver Transpl 15(9):1083–1091
Allison AC, Eugui EM (2005) Mechanisms of action of mycophenolate mofetil in preventing acute and chronic allograft rejection. Transplantation 80(2 Suppl):S181–S190
Singh N et al (2005) An immune reconstitution syndrome-like illness associated with Cryptococcus neoformans infection in organ transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 40(12):1756–1761
Moen MD, Lyseng-Williamson KA, Scott LJ (2009) Liposomal amphotericin B: a review of its use as empirical therapy in febrile neutropenia and in the treatment of invasive fungal infections. Drugs 69(3):361–392
Dromer F et al (1996) Epidemiology of cryptococcosis in France: a 9-year survey (1985-1993). French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 23(1):82–90
Sun HY, Wagener MM, Singh N (2009) Cryptococcosis in solid-organ, hematopoietic stem cell, and tissue transplant recipients: evidence-based evolving trends. Clin Infect Dis 48(11):1566–1576
Rolfes MA et al (2014) The effect of therapeutic lumbar punctures on acute mortality from cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 59(11):1607–1614
Singh N et al (2008) Cryptococcosis in solid organ transplant recipients: current state of the science. Clin Infect Dis 47(10):1321–1327
Henao-Martinez AF, Beckham JD (2015) Cryptococcosis in solid organ transplant recipients. Curr Opin Infect Dis 28(4):300–307
Dismukes WE et al (1987) Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis with combination amphotericin B and flucytosine for four as compared with six weeks. N Engl J Med 317(6):334–341
Tristano AG (2010) Cryptococcal meningitis and systemic lupus erythematosus: a case report and review. Rev Chil Infectol 27(2):155–159
Chen HS et al (2007) Invasive fungal infection in systemic lupus erythematosus: an analysis of 15 cases and a literature review. Rheumatology (Oxford) 46(3):539–544
Yao Z, Liao W, Chen R (2005) Management of cryptococcosis in non-HIV-related patients. Med Mycol 43(3):245–251
Datta K et al (2009) Spread of Cryptococcus gattii into Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 15(8):1185–1191
Arayawichanont A et al (1999) Successful medical treatment of multiple cryptococcomas: report of a case and literature review. J Med Assoc Thail 82(10):991–999
Hospenthal DR, Bennett JE (2000) Persistence of cryptococcomas on neuroimaging. Clin Infect Dis 31(5):1303–1306
Blackie JD et al (1985) Ophthalmological complications of cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Exp Neurol 21:263–270
Kozel TR, Wickes B (2014) Fungal diagnostics. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 4(4):a019299
Perfect JR, Casadevall A (2002) Cryptococcosis. Infect Dis Clin N Am 16(4):837–874, v–vi
Vidal JE, Boulware DR (2015) Lateral flow assay for cryptococcal antigen: an important advance to improve the continuum of HIV care and reduce cryptococcal meningitis-related mortality. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 57(Suppl 19):38–45
Menezes Rde P, Penatti MP, Pedroso Rdos S (2011) Different culture media containing methyldopa for melanin production by Cryptococcus species. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 44(5):591–594
Klein KR et al (2009) Identification of Cryptococcus gattii by use of L-canavanine glycine bromothymol blue medium and DNA sequencing. J Clin Microbiol 47(11):3669–3672
Dominic RS et al (2009) Diagnostic value of latex agglutination in cryptococcal meningitis. J Lab Physicians 1(2):67–68
Rivera V et al (2015) Validation and clinical application of a molecular method for the identification of Cryptococcus neoformans/Cryptococcus gattii complex DNA in human clinical specimens. Braz J Infect Dis 19(6):563–570
Trilles L et al (2008) Regional pattern of the molecular types of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii in Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 103(5):455–462
Trilles L et al (2014) Identification of the major molecular types of Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii by Hyperbranched rolling circle amplification. PLoS One 9(4):e94648
Sidrim JJ et al (2010) Molecular methods for the diagnosis and characterization of Cryptococcus: a review. Can J Microbiol 56(6):445–458
Meyer W et al (2009) Consensus multi-locus sequence typing scheme for Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. Med Mycol 47(6):561–570
Casadevall A (2012) Fungi and the rise of mammals. PLoS Pathog 8(8):e1002808
Petter R et al (2001) A survey of heterobasidiomycetous yeasts for the presence of the genes homologous to virulence factors of Filobasidiella neoformans, CNLAC1 and CAP59. Microbiology 147(Pt 8):2029–2036
Perfect JR, Lang SD, Durack DT (1980) Chronic cryptococcal meningitis: a new experimental model in rabbits. Am J Pathol 101(1):177–194
Kuhn LR (1949) Effect of elevated body temperatures on cryptococcosis in mice. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 71(3):341–343
Littman ML, Zimmerman LE (1956) Cryptococcosis. Grune & Stratton, New York
Fox DS, Cox GM, Heitman J (2003) Phospholipid-binding protein Cts1 controls septation and functions coordinately with calcineurin in Cryptococcus neoformans. Eukaryot Cell 2(5):1025–1035
Griffith CL et al (2004) UDP-glucose dehydrogenase plays multiple roles in the biology of the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans. J Biol Chem 279(49):51669–51676
Moyrand F, Janbon G (2004) UGD1, encoding the Cryptococcus neoformans UDP-glucose dehydrogenase, is essential for growth at 37 degrees C and for capsule biosynthesis. Eukaryot Cell 3(6):1601–1608
Kingsbury JM et al (2004) Cryptococcus neoformans Ilv2p confers resistance to sulfometuron methyl and is required for survival at 37 degrees C and in vivo. Microbiology 150(Pt 5):1547–1558
Giles SS et al (2005) Cryptococcus neoformans mitochondrial superoxide dismutase: an essential link between antioxidant function and high-temperature growth. Eukaryot Cell 4(1):46–54
Ngamskulrungroj P et al (2009) The trehalose synthesis pathway is an integral part of the virulence composite for Cryptococcus gattii. Infect Immun 77(10):4584–4596
de Gontijo FA et al (2014) The role of the de novo pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway in Cryptococcus neoformans high temperature growth and virulence. Fungal Genet Biol 70:12–23
Nosanchuk JD, Stark RE, Casadevall A (2015) Fungal melanin: what do we know about structure? Front Microbiol 6:1463
Williamson PR, Wakamatsu K, Ito S (1998) Melanin biosynthesis in Cryptococcus neoformans. J Bacteriol 180(6):1570–1572
Land EJ, Ramsden CA, Riley PA (2004) Quinone chemistry and melanogenesis. Methods Enzymol 378:88–109
Eisenman HC, Casadevall A (2012) Synthesis and assembly of fungal melanin. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 93(3):931–940
Pukkila-Worley R et al (2005) Transcriptional network of multiple capsule and melanin genes governed by the Cryptococcus neoformans cyclic AMP cascade. Eukaryot Cell 4(1):190–201
Panepinto J et al (2009) Sec6-dependent sorting of fungal extracellular exosomes and laccase of Cryptococcus neoformans. Mol Microbiol 71(5):1165–1176
Missall TA et al (2005) Distinct stress responses of two functional laccases in Cryptococcus neoformans are revealed in the absence of the thiol-specific antioxidant Tsa1. Eukaryot Cell 4(1):202–208
Eisenman HC et al (2009) Vesicle-associated melanization in Cryptococcus neoformans. Microbiology 155(Pt 12):3860–3867
Salas SD et al (1996) Effect of the laccase gene CNLAC1, on virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Exp Med 184(2):377–386
Mednick AJ, Nosanchuk JD, Casadevall A (2005) Melanization of Cryptococcus neoformans affects lung inflammatory responses during cryptococcal infection. Infect Immun 73(4):2012–2019
Wang Y, Aisen P, Casadevall A (1995) Cryptococcus neoformans melanin and virulence: mechanism of action. Infect Immun 63(8):3131–3136
Jacobson ES, Tinnell SB (1993) Antioxidant function of fungal melanin. J Bacteriol 175(21):7102–7104
Huffnagle GB et al (1995) Down-regulation of the afferent phase of T cell-mediated pulmonary inflammation and immunity by a high melanin-producing strain of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Immunol 155(7):3507–3516
Rosas AL et al (2000) Synthesis of polymerized melanin by Cryptococcus neoformans in infected rodents. Infect Immun 68(5):2845–2853
Rosas AL et al (2002) Activation of the alternative complement pathway by fungal melanins. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 9(1):144–148
Ikeda R et al (2003) Effects of melanin upon susceptibility of Cryptococcus to antifungals. Microbiol Immunol 47(4):271–277
Martinez LR, Casadevall A (2006) Susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans biofilms to antifungal agents in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50(3):1021–1033
van Duin D et al (2004) Effects of voriconazole on Cryptococcus neoformans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48(6):2014–2020
Chayakulkeeree M et al (2011) SEC14 is a specific requirement for secretion of phospholipase B1 and pathogenicity of Cryptococcus neoformans. Mol Microbiol 80(4):1088–1101
Singh A et al (2013) Factors required for activation of urease as a virulence determinant in Cryptococcus neoformans. MBio 4(3):e00220–e00213
Ghannoum MA (2003) Potential role of phospholipases in virulence and fungal pathogenesis. Clin Microbiol Rev 13(1):122–143, table of contents
Cox GM et al (2001) Extracellular phospholipase activity is a virulence factor for Cryptococcus neoformans. Mol Microbiol 39(1):166–175
Santangelo RT et al (1999) Biochemical and functional characterisation of secreted phospholipase activities from Cryptococcus neoformans in their naturally occurring state. J Med Microbiol 48(8):731–740
Chen SC et al (1997) Identification of extracellular phospholipase B, lysophospholipase, and acyltransferase produced by Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 65(2):405–411
Maruvada R et al (2012) Cryptococcus neoformans phospholipase B1 activates host cell Rac1 for traversal across the blood-brain barrier. Cell Microbiol 14(10):1544–1553
Hole CR et al (2012) Mechanisms of dendritic cell lysosomal killing of Cryptococcus. Sci Rep 2:739
Smith LM, Dixon EF, May RC (2015) The fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans manipulates macrophage phagosome maturation. Cell Microbiol 17(5):702–713
Noverr MC et al (2003) Role of PLB1 in pulmonary inflammation and cryptococcal eicosanoid production. Infect Immun 71(3):1538–1547
Cox GM et al (2000) Urease as a virulence factor in experimental cryptococcosis. Infect Immun 68(2):443–448
Lee MH et al (1992) Klebsiella aerogenes urease gene cluster: sequence of ureD and demonstration that four accessory genes (ureD, ureE, ureF, and ureG) are involved in nickel metallocenter biosynthesis. J Bacteriol 174(13):4324–4330
Mobley HL (1996) The role of Helicobacter pylori urease in the pathogenesis of gastritis and peptic ulceration. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 10(Suppl 1):57–64
Rappleye CA, Goldman WE (2006) Defining virulence genes in the dimorphic fungi. Annu Rev Microbiol 60:281–303
Osterholzer JJ et al (2009) Cryptococcal urease promotes the accumulation of immature dendritic cells and a non-protective T2 immune response within the lung. Am J Pathol 174(3):932–943
Olszewski MA et al (2004) Urease expression by Cryptococcus neoformans promotes microvascular sequestration, thereby enhancing central nervous system invasion. Am J Pathol 164(5):1761–1771
Shi M et al (2010) Real-time imaging of trapping and urease-dependent transmigration of Cryptococcus neoformans in mouse brain. J Clin Invest 120(5):1683–1693
Barnett JA (2010) A history of research on yeasts 14: medical yeasts part 2, Cryptococcus neoformans. Yeast 27(11):875–904
Benham RW (1935) Cryptococci: their identification by morphology and by serology. J Infect Dis 57(3):255–274
Evans EE, Mehl JW (1951) A qualitative analysis of capsular poly-saccharides from Cryptococcus neoformans by filter paper chromatography. Science (Washington) 114(2949):10–11
Evans EE (1950) The antigenic composition of Cryptococcus neoformans. I. A serologic classification by means of the capsular and agglutination reactions. J Immunol 64(5):423–430
Rebers PA et al (1958) Precipitation of the specific polysaccharide of Cryptococcus neoformans A by types II and XIV antipneumococcal sera1. J Am Chem Soc 80(5):1135–1137
Bhattacharjee AK, Kwon-Chung KJ, Glaudemans CP (1980) Structural studies on the major, capsular polysaccharide from Cryptococcus bacillisporus serotype B. Carbohydr Res 82(1):103–111
Cherniak R, Reiss E, Turner SH (1982) A galactoxylomannan antigen of Cryptococcus neoformans serotype A. Carbohydr Res 103(2):239–250
O'Meara TR, Alspaugh JA (2012) The Cryptococcus neoformans capsule: a sword and a shield. Clin Microbiol Rev 25(3):387–408
Zaragoza O et al (2009) The capsule of the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. Adv Appl Microbiol 68:133–216
McFadden DC et al (2007) Capsule structural heterogeneity and antigenic variation in Cryptococcus neoformans. Eukaryot Cell 6(8):1464–1473
Janbon G et al (2001) Cas1p is a membrane protein necessary for the O-acetylation of the Cryptococcus neoformans capsular polysaccharide. Mol Microbiol 42(2):453–467
McFadden DC, De Jesus M, Casadevall A (2006) The physical properties of the capsular polysaccharides from Cryptococcus neoformans suggest features for capsule construction. J Biol Chem 281(4):1868–1875
Heiss C et al (2009) The structure of Cryptococcus neoformans galactoxylomannan contains beta-D-glucuronic acid. Carbohydr Res 344(7):915–920
Bar-Peled M, Griffith CL, Doering TL (2001) Functional cloning and characterization of a UDP- glucuronic acid decarboxylase: the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans elucidates UDP-xylose synthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98(21):12003–12008
Moyrand F et al (2008) UGE1 and UGE2 regulate the UDP-glucose/UDP-galactose equilibrium in Cryptococcus neoformans. Eukaryot Cell 7(12):2069–2077
Yoneda A, Doering TL (2009) An unusual organelle in Cryptococcus neoformans links luminal pH and capsule biosynthesis. Fungal Genet Biol 46(9):682–687
Moyrand F, Fontaine T, Janbon G (2007) Systematic capsule gene disruption reveals the central role of galactose metabolism on Cryptococcus neoformans virulence. Mol Microbiol 64(3):771–781
Gilbert NM et al (2010) KRE genes are required for beta-1,6-glucan synthesis, maintenance of capsule architecture and cell wall protein anchoring in Cryptococcus neoformans. Mol Microbiol 76(2):517–534
Reese AJ, Doering TL (2003) Cell wall alpha-1,3-glucan is required to anchor the Cryptococcus neoformans capsule. Mol Microbiol 50(4):1401–1409
Baker LG et al (2007) Chitosan, the deacetylated form of chitin, is necessary for cell wall integrity in Cryptococcus neoformans. Eukaryot Cell 6(5):855–867
Fonseca FL et al (2009) Role for chitin and chitooligomers in the capsular architecture of Cryptococcus neoformans. Eukaryot Cell 8(10):1543–1553
Siafakas AR et al (2007) Cell wall-linked cryptococcal phospholipase B1 is a source of secreted enzyme and a determinant of cell wall integrity. J Biol Chem 282(52):37508–37514
Frases S et al (2009) Capsule of Cryptococcus neoformans grows by enlargement of polysaccharide molecules. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(4):1228–1233
Zaragoza O et al (2006) The polysaccharide capsule of the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans enlarges by distal growth and is rearranged during budding. Mol Microbiol 59(1):67–83
Charlier C et al (2005) Capsule structure changes associated with Cryptococcus neoformans crossing of the blood-brain barrier. Am J Pathol 166(2):421–432
Mansour MK, Levitz SM (2002) Interactions of fungi with phagocytes. Curr Opin Microbiol 5(4):359–365
Kozel TR, Gotschlich EC (1982) The capsule of Cryptococcus neoformans passively inhibits phagocytosis of the yeast by macrophages. J Immunol 129(4):1675–1680
Syme RM et al (1999) The capsule of Cryptococcus neoformans reduces T-lymphocyte proliferation by reducing phagocytosis, which can be restored with anticapsular antibody. Infect Immun 67(9):4620–4627
Syme RM et al (2002) Primary dendritic cells phagocytose Cryptococcus neoformans via mannose receptors and Fcgamma receptor II for presentation to T lymphocytes. Infect Immun 70(11):5972–5981
Monari C et al (2005) Glucuronoxylomannan, a microbial compound, regulates expression of costimulatory molecules and production of cytokines in macrophages. J Infect Dis 191(1):127–137
Monari C et al (2006) Microbial immune suppression mediated by direct engagement of inhibitory Fc receptor. J Immunol 177(10):6842–6851
Alvarez M, Casadevall A (2006) Phagosome extrusion and host-cell survival after Cryptococcus neoformans phagocytosis by macrophages. Curr Biol 16(21):2161–2165
Zaragoza O et al (2008) Capsule enlargement in Cryptococcus neoformans confers resistance to oxidative stress suggesting a mechanism for intracellular survival. Cell Microbiol 10(10):2043–2057
Tucker SC, Casadevall A (2002) Replication of Cryptococcus neoformans in macrophages is accompanied by phagosomal permeabilization and accumulation of vesicles containing polysaccharide in the cytoplasm. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99(5):3165–3170
Wilder JA et al (2002) Complementation of a capsule deficient Cryptococcus neoformans with CAP64 restores virulence in a murine lung infection. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 26(3):306–314
Barbosa FM et al (2007) Binding of glucuronoxylomannan to the CD14 receptor in human A549 alveolar cells induces interleukin-8 production. Clin Vaccine Immunol 14(1):94–98
De Jesus M et al (2008) Spleen deposition of Cryptococcus neoformans capsular glucuronoxylomannan in rodents occurs in red pulp macrophages and not marginal zone macrophages expressing the C-type lectin SIGN-R1. Med Mycol 46(2):153–162
Murphy JW, Cozad GC (1972) Immunological unresponsiveness induced by cryptococcal capsular polysaccharide assayed by the hemolytic plaque technique. Infect Immun 5(6):896–901
Mody CH, Syme RM (1993) Effect of polysaccharide capsule and methods of preparation on human lymphocyte proliferation in response to Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 61(2):464–469
Yauch LE, Lam JS, Levitz SM (2006) Direct inhibition of T-cell responses by the Cryptococcus capsular polysaccharide glucuronoxylomannan. PLoS Pathog 2(11):e120
Barluzzi R et al (1998) Role of the capsule in microglial cell-Cryptococcus neoformans interaction: impairment of antifungal activity but not of secretory functions. Med Mycol 36(4):189–197
Monari C et al (2008) Capsular polysaccharide induction of apoptosis by intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms. Cell Microbiol 10(10):2129–2137
Dong ZM, Murphy JW (1997) Cryptococcal polysaccharides bind to CD18 on human neutrophils. Infect Immun 65(2):557–563
Rodrigues ML et al (2007) Vesicular polysaccharide export in Cryptococcus neoformans is a eukaryotic solution to the problem of fungal trans-cell wall transport. Eukaryot Cell 6(1):48–59
Peres da Silva R et al (2015) Extracellular vesicles from Paracoccidioides pathogenic species transport polysaccharide and expose ligands for DC-SIGN receptors. Sci Rep 5:14213
Rodrigues ML et al (2008) Extracellular vesicles produced by Cryptococcus neoformans contain protein components associated with virulence. Eukaryot Cell 7(1):58–67
Zhu J, Yamane H, Paul WE (2010) Differentiation of effector CD4 T cell populations (*). Annu Rev Immunol 28:445–489
Rivera J et al (2002) Antibody efficacy in murine pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans infection: a role for nitric oxide. J Immunol 168(7):3419–3427
Hardison SE et al (2010) Pulmonary infection with an interferon-γ-producing Cryptococcus neoformans strain results in classical macrophage activation and protection. Am J Pathol 176(2):774–785
Huffnagle GB et al (1996) Afferent phase production of TNF-alpha is required for the development of protective T cell immunity to Cryptococcus neoformans. J Immunol 157(10):4529–4536
Xu J et al (2016) Disruption of early tumor necrosis factor alpha signaling prevents classical activation of dendritic cells in lung-associated lymph nodes and development of protective immunity against cryptococcal infection. mBio 7(4):e00510–e00516
Herring AC et al (2002) Induction of interleukin-12 and gamma interferon requires tumor necrosis factor alpha for protective T1-cell-mediated immunity to pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Infect Immun 70(6):2959–2964
Monari C et al (2005) Cryptococcus neoformans capsular glucuronoxylomannan induces expression of fas ligand in macrophages. J Immunol 174(6):3461–3468
Small JM, Mitchell TG (1989) Strain variation in antiphagocytic activity of capsular polysaccharides from Cryptococcus neoformans serotype A. Infect Immun 57(12):3751–3756
Levitz SM (1994) Macrophage-Cryptococcus interactions. Immunol Ser 60:533–543
Aguirre KM, Gibson GW (2000) Differing requirement for inducible nitric oxide synthase activity in clearance of primary and secondary Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Med Mycol 38(5):343–353
Naslund PK, Miller WC, Granger DL (1995) Cryptococcus neoformans fails to induce nitric oxide synthase in primed murine macrophage-like cells. Infect Immun 63(4):1298–1304
Facchetti F et al (1999) Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in human granulomas and histiocytic reactions. Am J Pathol 154(1):145–152
Xiao G et al (2008) Cryptococcus neoformans inhibits nitric oxide synthesis caused by CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide-stimulated macrophages in a fashion independent of capsular polysaccharides. Microbiol Immunol 52(3):171–179
Arora S et al (2005) Role of IFN-γ in regulating T2 immunity and the development of alternatively activated macrophages during allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis. J Immunol 174(10):6346–6356
Qiu Y et al (2012) Immune modulation mediated by cryptococcal laccase promotes pulmonary growth and brain dissemination of virulent Cryptococcus neoformans in mice. PLoS One 7(10):e47853–e47853
Eastman AJ et al (2015) Cryptococcal heat shock protein 70 homolog Ssa1 contributes to pulmonary expansion of Cryptococcus neoformans during the afferent phase of the immune response by promoting macrophage M2 polarization. J Immunol 194(12):5999–6010
Arora S et al (2011) Effect of cytokine interplay on macrophage polarization during chronic pulmonary infection with Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 79(5):1915–1926
Kawakami K et al (1999) Differential effect of Cryptococcus neoformans on the production of IL-12p40 and IL-10 by murine macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide and gamma interferon. FEMS Microbiol Lett 175(1):87–94
Deshaw M, Pirofski LA (1995) Antibodies to the Cryptococcus neoformans capsular glucuronoxylomannan are ubiquitous in serum from HIV+ and HIV− individuals. Clin Exp Immunol 99(3):425–432
Abe K et al (2000) Th1-Th2 cytokine kinetics in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of mice infected with Cryptococcus neoformans of different virulences. Microbiol Immunol 44(10):849–855
Kechichian TB, Shea J, Poeta MD (2007) Depletion of alveolar macrophages decreases the dissemination of a glucosylceramide-deficient mutant of Cryptococcus neoformans in immunodeficient mice. Infect Immun 75(10):4792–4798
Levitz SM et al (1999) Cryptococcus neoformans resides in an acidic phagolysosome of human macrophages. Infect Immun 67(2):885–890
Voelz K et al (2014) ‘Division of labour’ in response to host oxidative burst drives a fatal Cryptococcus gattii outbreak. Nat Commun 5:5194–5194
Johnston SA, May RC (2010) The human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans escapes macrophages by a phagosome emptying mechanism that is inhibited by Arp2/3 complex-mediated actin polymerisation. PLoS Pathog 6(8):e1001041–e1001041
Nicola AM et al (2011) Nonlytic exocytosis of Cryptococcus neoformans from macrophages occurs in vivo and is influenced by phagosomal pH. MBio 2(4):e00167–e00111
Liu T-B, Perlin DS, Xue C (2012) Molecular mechanisms of cryptococcal meningitis. Virulence 3(2):173–181
Diamond RD, Bennett JE (1973) Growth of Cryptococcus neoformans within human macrophages in vitro. Infect Immun 7(2):231–236
Ngamskulrungroj P et al (2012) The primary target organ of Cryptococcus gattii is different from that of Cryptococcus neoformans in a murine model. MBio 3(3):e00103–e00112
Qureshi A et al (2010) Role of sphingomyelin synthase in controlling the antimicrobial activity of neutrophils against Cryptococcus neoformans. PLoS One 5(12):e15587–e15587
Rocha JDB et al (2015) Capsular polysaccharides from Cryptococcus neoformans modulate production of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) by human neutrophils. Sci Rep 5:8008–8008
Qureshi A et al (2011) Cryptococcus neoformans modulates extracellular killing by neutrophils. Front Microbiol 2:193
Mednick AJ et al (2003) Neutropenia alters lung cytokine production in mice and reduces their susceptibility to pulmonary cryptococcosis. Eur J Immunol 33(6):1744–1753
Wozniak KL, Vyas JM, Levitz SM (2006) In vivo role of dendritic cells in a murine model of pulmonary cryptococcosis. Infect Immun 74(7):3817–3824
Wozniak KL, Kolls JK, Wormley FL (2012) Depletion of neutrophils in a protective model of pulmonary cryptococcosis results in increased IL-17A production by gamma/delta T cells. BMC Immunol 13(1):65–65
Dong ZM, Murphy JW (1996) Cryptococcal polysaccharides induce L-selectin shedding and tumor necrosis factor receptor loss from the surface of human neutrophils. J Clin Invest 97(3):689–698
Wiseman JCD et al (2007) Perforin-dependent cryptococcal microbicidal activity in NK cells requires PI3K-dependent ERK1/2 signaling. J Immunol 178(10):6456–6464
Marr KJ et al (2009) Cryptococcus neoformans directly stimulates perforin production and rearms NK cells for enhanced anticryptococcal microbicidal activity. Infect Immun 77(6):2436–2446
Islam A et al (2013) An acidic microenvironment increases NK cell killing of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii by enhancing perforin degranulation. PLoS Pathog 9(7):e1003439–e1003439
Miller MF et al (1990) Human natural killer cells do not inhibit growth of Cryptococcus neoformans in the absence of antibody. Infect Immun 58(3):639–645
Cordero RJB et al (2013) Antibody binding to Cryptococcus neoformans impairs budding by altering capsular mechanical properties. J Immunol 190(1):317–323
Kawakami K et al (2000) IL-18 contributes to host resistance against infection with Cryptococcus neoformans in mice with defective IL-12 synthesis through induction of IFN-gamma production by NK cells. J Immunol 165(2):941–947
Kawakami K et al (2000) NK cells eliminate Cryptococcus neoformans by potentiating the fungicidal activity of macrophages rather than by directly killing them upon stimulation with IL-12 and IL-18. Microbiol Immunol 44(12):1043–1050
Zhang T et al (1997) Interleukin-12 (IL-12) and IL-18 synergistically induce the fungicidal activity of murine peritoneal exudate cells against Cryptococcus neoformans through production of gamma interferon by natural killer cells. Infect Immun 65(9):3594–3599
Müller U et al (2013) Abrogation of IL-4 receptor-α-dependent alternatively activated macrophages is sufficient to confer resistance against pulmonary cryptococcosis despite an ongoing Th2 response. Int Immunol 25(8):459–470
Kelly RM et al (2005) Opsonic requirements for dendritic cell-mediated responses to Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 73(1):592–598
Hole CR et al (2016) Antifungal activity of plasmacytoid dendritic cells against Cryptococcus neoformans in vitro requires expression of dectin-3 (CLEC4D) and reactive oxygen species. Infect Immun 84(9):2493–2504
Huston SM et al (2013) Cryptococcus gattii is killed by dendritic cells, but evades adaptive immunity by failing to induce dendritic cell maturation. J Immunol 191(1):249–261
Wozniak KL, Levitz SM (2008) Cryptococcus neoformans enters the endolysosomal pathway of dendritic cells and is killed by lysosomal components. Infect Immun 76(10):4764–4771
Ueno K et al (2015) Dendritic cell-based immunization ameliorates pulmonary infection with highly virulent Cryptococcus gattii. Infect Immun 83(4):1577–1586
Hage CA et al (2003) Pulmonary cryptococcosis after initiation of anti-tumor necrosis factor-α therapy. Chest 124(6):2395–2397
Lupo P et al (2008) The presence of capsule in Cryptococcus neoformans influences the gene expression profile in dendritic cells during interaction with the fungus. Infect Immun 76(4):1581–1589
Grijpstra J et al (2009) The Cryptococcus neoformans cap10 and cap59 mutant strains, affected in glucuronoxylomannan synthesis, differentially activate human dendritic cells. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 57(2):142–150
Hardison SE, Brown GD (2012) C-type lectin receptors orchestrate antifungal immunity. Nat Immunol 13(9):817–822
Pericolini E et al (2006) Cryptococcus neoformans capsular polysaccharide component galactoxylomannan induces apoptosis of human T-cells through activation of caspase-8. Cell Microbiol 8(2):267–275
Stenzel W et al (2009) IL-4/IL-13-dependent alternative activation of macrophages but not microglial cells is associated with uncontrolled cerebral cryptococcosis. Am J Pathol 174(2):486–496
Dyken SJV, Locksley RM (2013) Interleukin-4- and interleukin-13-mediated alternatively activated macrophages: roles in homeostasis and disease. Annu Rev Immunol 31(1):317–343
Müller U et al (2007) IL-13 induces disease-promoting type 2 cytokines, alternatively activated macrophages and allergic inflammation during pulmonary infection of mice with Cryptococcus neoformans. J Immunol 179(8):5367–5377
Zhang Y et al (2009) Robust Th1 and Th17 immunity supports pulmonary clearance but cannot prevent systemic dissemination of highly virulent Cryptococcus neoformans H99. Am J Pathol 175(6):2489–2500
Wager CML et al (2015) STAT1 signaling within macrophages is required for antifungal activity against Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 83(12):4513–4527
Szymczak WA, Sellers RS, Pirofski L-a (2012) IL-23 dampens the allergic response to Cryptococcus neoformans through IL-17–independent and –dependent mechanisms. Am J Pathol 180(4):1547–1559
Müller U et al (2012) Lack of IL-4 receptor expression on T helper cells reduces T helper 2 cell polyfunctionality and confers resistance in allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis. Mucosal Immunol 5(3):299–310
Ma LL et al (2002) CD8 T cell-mediated killing of Cryptococcus neoformans requires granulysin and is dependent on CD4 T cells and IL-15. J Immunol 169(10):5787–5795
Mody CH et al (1994) Un vivo depletion of murine CD8 positive T cells impairs survival during infection with a highly virulent strain ofCryptococcus neoformans. Mycopathologia 125(1):7–17
Jarvis JN et al (2013) The phenotype of the Cryptococcus-specific cd4+ memory t-cell response is associated with disease severity and outcome in hiv-associated cryptococcal meningitis. J Infect Dis 207(12):1817–1828
Zaragoza O, Casadevall A (2006) Monoclonal antibodies can affect complement deposition on the capsule of the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans by both classical pathway activation and steric hindrance. Cell Microbiol 8(12):1862–1876
Nabavi N, Murphy JW (1986) Antibody-dependent natural killer cell-mediated growth inhibition of Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 51(2):556–562
Rosas ÁL, Nosanchuk JD, Casadevall A (2001) Passive immunization with melanin-binding monoclonal antibodies prolongs survival of mice with lethal Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Infect Immun 69(5):3410–3412
McClelland EE et al (2010) Ab binding alters gene expression in Cryptococcus neoformans and directly modulates fungal metabolism. J Clin Invest 120(4):1355–1361
Rodrigues ML et al (2000) Human antibodies against a purified glucosylceramide from Cryptococcus neoformans inhibit cell budding and fungal growth. Infect Immun 68(12):7049–7060
Rachini A et al (2007) An anti-β-glucan monoclonal antibody inhibits growth and capsule formation of Cryptococcus neoformans in vitro and exerts therapeutic, anticryptococcal activity in vivo. Infect Immun 75(11):5085–5094
McClelland EE, Casadevall A (2012) Strain-related differences in antibody-mediated changes in gene expression are associated with differences in capsule and location of binding. Fungal Genet Biol 49(3):227–234
Dromer F et al (1987) Protection of mice against experimental cryptococcosis by anti-Cryptococcus neoformans monoclonal antibody. Infect Immun 55(3):749–752
Mukherjee S et al (1994) Monoclonal antibodies to Cryptococcus neoformans capsular polysaccharide modify the course of intravenous infection in mice. Infect Immun 62(3):1079–1088
Fleuridor R, Zhong Z, Pirofski L-a (1998) A human IgM monoclonal antibody prolongs survival of mice with lethal cryptococcosis. J Infect Dis 178(4):1213–1216
Rivera J, Zaragoza O, Casadevall A (2005) Antibody-mediated protection against Cryptococcus neoformans pulmonary infection is dependent on B cells. Infect Immun 73(2):1141–1150
Subramaniam KS et al (2010) Improved survival of mice deficient in secretory immunoglobulin M following systemic infection with Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 78(1):441–452
Aguirre KM, Johnson LL (1997) A role for B cells in resistance to Cryptococcus neoformans in mice. Infect Immun 65(2):525–530
Baumgarth N (2011) The double life of a B-1 cell: self-reactivity selects for protective effector functions. Nat Rev Immunol 11(1):34–46
Espinel-Ingroff A, Kidd SE (2015) Current trends in the prevalence of Cryptococcus gattii in the United States and Canada. Infect Drug Resist 8:89–97
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Godinho, R.M.d.C. et al. (2017). Cryptococcus and Cryptococcosis. In: Mora-Montes, H., Lopes-Bezerra, L. (eds) Current Progress in Medical Mycology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64113-3_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64113-3_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-64112-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-64113-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)