Abstract
Sexual violence is an ever-increasing feature of online culture, with rape the central aim of ‘stalking simulators’ and violence directed towards avatar sex workers in the Grand Theft Auto franchise (Martinez and Manolovitz 2010, p. 68). Using discourse analysis, this chapter examines discussions from online forums about the use of the word ‘rape’ to refer to instances of sexual violence in online spaces. It interrogates the debate around whether these occurrences are forms of sexual violence, or representations of sexual violence based on the presence/absence of an embodied material experience. This chapter argues that while such developments should not be ignored, they are not new (e.g. Mystique 1982) and the novelty of the technology can detract attention from long-standing issues of gender and sexual inequality.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Antaki, C., M. Billig, D. Edwards, and J. Potter, 2003. ‘Discourse analysis means doing analysis: A critique of six analytic shortcomings’. Discourse Analysis Online, 1, 1–24.
Austin, J., 1979. Philosophical papers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Benedikt, M., 1991. ‘Introduction’, in Benedikt M., ed. Cyberspace: First Steps. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, pp. 1–25.
Brookey, R., and K. Cannon, 2009. ‘Sex lives in Second Life’. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 26, 145–64.
Brosnan, M., 2010. ‘Technophobia: The psychological impact of information technology’. Presented at the Cyberpsychology & Computer Psychology Conference, University of Bolton, UK.
Burt, M., 1980. ‘Cultural myths and supports for rape’. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217–30.
Butler, J., 2004. ‘The force of fantasy: Feminism, Mapplethorpe, and discursive excess’, in Butler, J., and S. Salih, eds. The Judith Butler Reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 183–203.
Chayko, M., 1993. ‘What is real in the age of virtual reality? “Reframing” frame analysis for a technological world’. Symbolic Interaction, 16, 171–81.
Consalvo, M., 2012. ‘Confronting toxic gamer culture: A challenge for feminist game studies scholars’. Ada: A Journal of Gender, New Media, and Technology, 1 (online; not paginated).
Cooper, A., I. McLoughlin, and K. Campbell, 2000. ‘Sexuality in cyberspace: Update for the 21st Century’. Cyberpsychology & Behaviour, 3, 521–36.
Dibbell, J., 1998. My tiny life: Crime and passion in a virtual world. New York: Henry Holt & Company.
Dong, O., M. Urista, and D. Gundrum, 2008. ‘The impact of emotional intelligence, self esteem and self image on romantic communication over MySpace’. Cyberpsychology & Behaviour, 11, 577–78.
Doring, N., 2009. ‘The Internet’s impact on sexuality: A critical review’. Computers in Human Behaviours, 25, 1089–1101.
Doring, N., 2000. ‘Feminist views on cybersex: Victimization, liberation, and empowerment’. Cyberpsychology & Behaviour, 3, 863–84.
Downing, S., 2010. ‘Online gaming and the social construction of virtual victimization’. Eludamos: Journal for Computer Game Culture, 4, 287–301.
Duranske, B., 2007. ‘Reader roundtable: “Virtual rape” claim brings Belgian police to Second Life’. Retrieved 01.01.17 from http://virtuallyblind.com/2007/04/24/open-roundtable-allegations-of-virtual-rape-bring-belgian-police-to-second-life/.
Ehrlich, S., and R. King, 1992. ‘Gender-based language reform and the social construction of meaning’. Discourse & Society, 3, 151–66.
Eklund, L., 2011. ‘Doing gender in cyberspace: The performance of gender by female World of Warcraft players’. Convergence 17, 323–42.
Estrich, S., 1987. Real rape: How the legal system victimizes women who say no. London: Harvard University Press.
Finn, J., and M. Lavitt, 1994. ‘Computer based self-help groups for sexual abuse survivors’. Social Work With Groups, 17, 41–6.
‘Gang Rape Photos on Facebook’, 2010. CBC News. Retrieved 01.01.17 from http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2010/09/15/bc-pitt-meadows-rave-assault.html.
Giles, D., 2006. ‘Constructing identities in cyberspace: The case of eating disorders’. British Journal of Social Psychology, 45, 463–77.
Hamilton, M., 2012. ‘Does Tomb Raider’s Lara Croft really have to be the survivor of a rape attempt?’ The Guardian. Retrieved 01.01.17 from http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jun/13/tomb-raider-lara-croft-rape-attempt.
Haraway, D., 1991. Simians, cyborgs and women: The reinvention of nature. New York: Routledge.
Harris, A. (2005). Discourses of desire as governmentality: Young women, sexuality and the significance of safe spaces. Feminism & Psychology 15 (1): 39–43.
Herbst, C., 2005. ‘Shock and awe: Virtual females and the sexing of war’. Feminist Media Studies, 5, 311–24.
Hernandez, P., 2012. ‘Three words I said to the man I defeated in Gears of War that I’ll never say again’. Retrieved 01.01.17 from http://kotaku.com/5914348/three-words-i-said-to-the-man-i-defeated-in-gears-of-war-that-ill-never-say-again.
HollaBack 2012. Retrieved 01.01.17 from www.ihollaback.org.
Hollway, W., 1995. ‘Feminist discourses and women’s heterosexual desire’, in Wilkinson, S., and C. Kitzinger, eds. Feminism and Discourse: Psychological Perspectives. London: Sage Publications, pp. 86–105.
Hookway, N., 2008. ‘“Entering the blogosphere”: Some strategies for using blogs in social research’. Qualitative Research, 8, 91–113.
Houser, D., P. Kurowski, and J. Worrall, DMA Design, Rockstar Vienna, 2001. Grant Theft Auto III. Rockstar Games, New York.
Hughes, D. 1999. Pimps and predators on the Internet: Globalizing the sexual exploitation of women and children. Kingston, Rhode Island: The Coalition Against Trafficking in Women.
Hughes, D., 2000. ‘“Welcome to the Rape Camp”: Sexual exploitation and the Internet in Cambodia’. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 6, 29–51.
Illusion, 1999. Biko. Author, Yokohama.
Illusion, 2000. Biko 2. Author, Yokohama.
Illusion, 2004. Biko 3. Author, Yokohama.
Illusion, 2006. RapeLay. Author, Yokohama.
Jones, S., 1995. ‘Introduction: From where to who knows?’ in Jones, S., ed., Cybersociety: Computer-Mediated Communication and Community. London: Sage Publications, pp. 1–9.
Kelly, L., 1988. ‘What’s in a name? Defining child sexual abuse’. Feminist Review, 28, 65–73.
Kendall, L., 1999. ‘Recontextualizing “cyberspace”: Methodological considerations for online research’, in Jones, S., ed. Doing Internet Research: Critical Issues and Methods for Examining the Net. London: Sage Publications, pp. 57–73.
Kimmel, M., and M. Mahler, 2003. ‘Adolescent masculinity, homophobia, and violence: Random school shootings’. American Behavioral Scientist, 46, 1439–58.
King, S., 1996. ‘Researching Internet communities: Proposed ethical guidelines for the reporting of results’. Information Society, 12(2), 119–27.
Kramer, E., 2011. ‘The playful is political: The metapragmatics of Internet rape-joke arguments’. Language & Society, 40, 137–68.
Krawczyk, M., A. Stein, D. Jaffe, and K. Fay, SCE Santa Monica Studio, 2005. God of War. Tokyo: Sony Computer Entertainment.
Langelan, M., 1993. Back off! How to confront and stop sexual harassment and harassers. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Martinez, M., and T. Manolovitz, 2010. ‘Pornography of gaming’, in Riha, D., ed., Videogame Cultures and the Future of Interactive Entertainment. Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press, pp. 65–74.
Miah, A., 2000. ‘Virtually nothing: Re-evaluating the significance of cyberspace’. Leisure Studies, 19, 211–25.
Morahan-Martin, J., 2000. ‘Women and the Internet: Promise and perils’. Cyberpsychology & Behaviour, 3, 683–91.
Muise, A., 2011. ‘Women’s sex blogs: Challenging dominant discourses of heterosexual desire’. Feminism & Psychology, 21, 411–19.
Mystique, 1982. Custer’s Revenge. Los Angeles.
Nicolson, P., 1993. ‘Public values and private beliefs: Why women refer themselves for sex therapy’, in: Ussher, J., and C. Baker, eds., Psychological Perspectives on Sexual Problems. London: Routledge, pp. 56–76.
Othman, M., and R. Latih, n.d. ‘Women in computer science: No shortage here!’ Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), 49(3), 111–14.
Overgaard, P., 1994. ‘The scale of terrorist attacks as a signal of resources’. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 38, 452–78.
Parker, I., 2014. Discourse Dynamics: Critical Analysis for Social and Individual Psychology. London: Routledge.
Potter, J., and M. Wetherell, 1987. Discourse and social psychology. London: Sage Publications.
Potts, A., 2002. The Science/fiction of Sex: Feminist Deconstruction and the Vocabularies of Heterosex. New York: Psychology Press.
Ranganath, R., D. Jurafsky, and D. McFarland, 2009. ‘It’s not you, it’s me: Detecting flirting and its misperception in speed-dates’, in Proceedings of the 2009 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing. pp. 334–42.
Reid, E., 1995. ‘Virtual worlds: Culture and imagination’, in: Jones, S., ed., Cybersociety: Computer-Mediated Communication and Community. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, pp. 164–83.
Ritchie, A., and M. Barker, 2005. ‘Feminist SM: A contradiction in terms or a way of challenging traditional gendered dynamics through sexual practice?’ Lesbian & Gay Psychology Review, 6, 227–39.
Robinson, K., 2005. ‘Reinforcing hegemonic masculinities through sexual harassment: Issues of identity, power and popularity in secondary schools’. Gender and Education, 17, 19–37.
Rockstar Games, 1997. Grand Theft Auto. New York.
Ross, M. (2005). Typing, doing, and being: Sexuality and the internet. Journal of Sex Research 42 (4): 342–352.
Salih, S., 2004. ‘Introduction’, in Butler, J., and S. Salih, eds., The Judith Butler Reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 1–18.
Schwendinger, J., and H. Schwendinger, 1974. ‘Rape myths: In legal, theoretical, and everyday practice’. Crime and Social Justice, 1, 18–26.
Sethna, C., 1992. ‘Accepting “total and complete responsibility”: New age neofeminist violence against women’. Feminism & Psychology, 2, 113–19.
Shanahan, T., 2009. The provisional Irish Republican Army and the morality of terrorism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Sharf, B., 1999. ‘Beyond netiquette: The ethics of doing naturalistic discourse research on the Internet’, in Jones, S., ed., Doing Internet Research: Critical Issues and Methods for Examining the Net. London: Sage Publications, pp. 243–56.
Sixsmith, J., and C. Murray, 2001. ‘Ethical issues in the documentary data analysis of Internet posts and archives’. Qualitative Health Research, 11, 423–32.
Sprecher, S., P. Schwartz, J. Harvey, and E. Hatfield, 2008. ‘TheBusinessofLove.com: Relationship initiation and Internet matchmaking services’, in Sprecher, S., ed., Handbook of Relationship Initiation. Hove: Psychology Press, pp. 249–68.
Stanko, E., 1985. Intimate intrusions: Women’s experience of male violence. London: Unwin Hyman.
Stanko, E., 1990. Everyday violence: How women and men experience physical and sexual danger. London: Pandora.
‘Steubenville Ohio School Footballers Guilty of Rape’, 2013. BBC News. Retrieved 01.01.17 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-21823042.
Tosh, J. (n.d.). ‘Rape is no joke, but the conviction rate is’. Retrieved 1 August 2012 from https://www.facebook.com/groups/283163171718067/ (closed group).
Wajcman, J., 2006. ‘TechnoCapitalism meets Technofeminism: Women and technology in a wireless world’. Labour & Industry, 16, 7–20.
Weedon, C., 1996. Feminist Practice and Poststructuralist Theory. London: Wiley.
White-McAuley, J., 1999. ‘Still “no surrender”? New Loyalism and the peace process in Ireland’, in: Harrington, J., and E. Mitchell, eds., Politics and Performance in Contemporary Northern Ireland. Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press, pp. 41–56.
White, P., 2014. ‘On the trail of Amanda Todd’s alleged tormentor’. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 01.01.17 from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/on-the-trail-of-amanda-todds-alleged-tormentor/article18935075/?page=all.
Whitty, M., 2003. ‘Cyber-flirting: Playing at love on the Internet’. Theory Psychology, 13, 339–57.
Wilford, R., 1996. ‘Women and politics in Northern Ireland’. Parliamentary Affairs, 49(1), 41–54.
Winnicott, D., 1997. Playing and reality. London: Tavistock.
Wiseman, E., 2013. ‘The Slane girl Twitter scandal proves that women can’t make mistakes’. The Guardian. Retrieved 01.01.17 from http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/sep/01/slane-girl-twitter-scandal-women.
Wise, S., and L. Stanley, 1987. Georgie Porgie: Sexual harassment in everyday life. London: Pandora Press.
Wood, E. 2008. Consciousness-raising 2.0: Sex blogging and the creation of a feminist sex commons. Feminism & Psychology 18(4): 480–487.
Acknowledgements
This chapter is from my doctoral dissertation submitted to Manchester Metropolitan University, UK. The author would like to thank Professor Erica Burman, Dr Geoff Bunn and Dr Asiya Siddiquee for their helpful feedback on an earlier version of this chapter.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Tosh, J. (2017). No Body, No Crime? (Representations of) Sexual Violence Online. In: Rees, E. (eds) Talking Bodies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63778-5_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63778-5_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-63777-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-63778-5
eBook Packages: Literature, Cultural and Media StudiesLiterature, Cultural and Media Studies (R0)