Abstract
Building cultural centers in line with egalitarian ideals may have been part of the Turkish modernization project. However, their (re)construction has continued increasingly in the last 20 years. This chapter examines the role of such centers and the meanings attributed to them under the Justice and Development Party (AKP) government. In doing so it discusses the uses of culture under this government and makes an assessment of cultural policy during 15 years of AKP rule. Examples are chosen specifically from the converted cultural centers in Istanbul in order to show that rebuilding cultural centers is a political act. Each of these cases helps to identify the different aims (neoliberal pragmatism, centralization of state powers, and conservative Islam as an ideology) behind the AKP’s cultural policy-making.
Comments by Christopher Gordon greatly helped to improve an earlier version of this manuscript.
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Notes
- 1.
As Ada underlines, however, that “does not mean that there is no cultural policy”. Written or unwritten, it is obvious that during the foundation period, the new state had a clear vision: it aimed to found a ‘national culture’. Serhan Ada, “For a New Cultural Policy”, in Introduction to Cultural Policy in Turkey, ed. Serhan Ada and Ayça İnce, Istanbul: İstanbul Bilgi University Press, 2009, 93–94.
- 2.
In 2013 the Council of Europe’s National Cultural Policy Report process almost reached its goal with the completion of the National Report by the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism. This was a descriptive report of what existed and the laws behind them. Then the Independent Expert’s Report was completed. For both reports, see http://www.coe.int/en/web/culture-and-heritage/national-reviews. However, the obligatory follow-up actions (e.g. the meeting in which experts and responsible ministers discuss the report, or translation of the report into the language of the state) have never been carried out. See http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/monitoring-coe-cpr.php.
- 3.
Independent Expert’s Report (2013), Recommendation no. 16. p. 81. See https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016806963fe.
- 4.
Ibid., Recommendation no.15 p. 81.
- 5.
Ibid., p. 37.
- 6.
“Conversion” is a very broad term that can be defined as “the act or process of changing from one religion, belief, political party etc., to another”, and in architecture as “the adaptation of a building for a new purpose”, Waite et al., Pocket Oxford American Dictionary, and Thesaurus, 166. Any conversion project therefore has to deal with history, architecture, economy, culture, and cultural policy all at the same time.
- 7.
For detailed information, see Yeşilkaya, Halkevleri: İdeoloji ve Mimarlık [People’s Houses: Ideology and Architecture], 72–78, and Toksoy, Halkevleri: Bir Kültürel Kalkınma Modeli Olarak [People’s Houses: A Cultural Development Model], 63–72.
- 8.
See Çeviker Gürakar, Politics of Favoritism in Public Procurement in Turkey for evidence-based analysis of increasing favoritism in public procurement (from tourism, health, energy and transport).
- 9.
Recent research, with the available latest data dating back to 2013, shows that the budget of the MOCT has never been more than 0.5% of the total national budget. This portion most likely amounts to less than half that figure, considering that culture shares the same ministry with tourism. http://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/kultur-sanat/594356/Paramizin_yuzde_ucunu_bile_sanata_harcamiyoruz.html#.
- 10.
Worth approximately $6,756,756–$8,445,945 based on exchange rates as of 23 September 2016.
- 11.
It is the march of the Ottoman janissary band, the Mehter platoon: moving two steps forward, one step back.
- 12.
The IKSV wa s founded by businessmen and art enthusiasts in 1973. It acted as the sole provider, tastemaker, and trendsetter of the arts and cultural scene until late 2000s. It took a while for private enterprise to discover and invest in the cultural sector. The philanthropic family-owned major holding companies such as Koç, Sabancı and Eczacıbaşı started to found their private museums—Sadberk Hanım Museum (1980), Rahmi Koç Museum (1994), Sabancı Museum (2002), Istanbul Mod ern (2004), Pera Museum (2005)—by the late 1990s, where they exhibited their family art collections. Their choice of venues was pre-eminent, as they all favored converting cultural heritage sites into museums.
- 13.
Circular no. 5228 on the encouragement of support (sponsorship) activities in the field of culture proposes tax deductions on aids and donations for culture and cultural infrastructure; and Bill no. 5225 offers tax incentives for cultural investments and enterprises.
- 14.
- 15.
Gazetesi, “Ayazaga’nın kaderini Turkmall teslim aldı” [Turkmall will tell the destiny of Ayazga].
- 16.
This is not the first time that Erdoğan h as sped up the opening of a cultural site in line with his political purposes. As a result, he opened I stanbul Modern just before 17 December 2004, which was the scheduled date for the commencement of the negotiations concerning Turkey’s accession to the European Union. Similarly, Santralistanbul was opened to public just before the 22 July 2007 elections, and then opened again with a full program in October 2007.
- 17.
In 1998 the judges in the Turkish Constitutional Court supported the Muslim headscarf ban, which dates back to 1982, to eliminate the Islamist movements. Throughout the 2002 national election campaign, the lifting of the headscarf ban was the AKP’s primary motivation. Even though it won the election, the AK P only proposed changes to the constitution in 2008, stating that “noone shall be deprived of the higher education right”. In 2008, IBU was among the many universities to lift the headscarf ban without waiting for an official decision. Having a liminal campus that houses museums and other facilities eased IBU’s ability to let students with headscarves in. Years later, in September 2013, Prime Minister Erdoğan officially lifted the headscarf ban in Turkey. Korteweg and Yurdakul, The Headscarf Debates: Conflicts of National Belonging, 71–75.
- 18.
- 19.
The black box is an architectural term that refers to one-huge open space that can continuously converted to serve to multi-functions of cultural venue.
- 20.
- 21.
The site was fully functioning until its conversion project was commissioned by Nurettin Sözen (the CHP mayor) in 1994. The project was only put out to tender in 1997, when Erdoğan was elected as mayor of Istanbul. The slaughterhouse was demolished in 1998 and its replacement was planned to be completed in 400 days.
- 22.
Worth approximately $1,351,351 based on exchange rates as of 23 September 2016.
- 23.
Worth approximately $74,324,324 based on exchange rates as of 23 September 2016.
- 24.
Later in 2014, another company owned by the same investor won the tender for the Golden Horn Yacht Harbour, which is just next to the Haliç Congress Center .
- 25.
Law on Istanbul 2010 European Capital of Culture no. 5706, dated 2 November 2007, Clause 11a.
- 26.
Chamber of Architects’ press release, dated 21 February 2007, is notable as a reminder of the values that could be attributed to the AKM: documentary value, cultural heritage value, architectural value, icon and memory value, and originality value. All this contributes to its value as a cultural property.
- 27.
Extract from the text on the AKM by Maral, From Cultural Hall to Shopping Mall, in Places of Memory, 83.
- 28.
Sabancı Holdings is one of the leading philanthropic family-owned major holding companies in Turkey.
- 29.
Worth approximately $10,135,135 based on exchange rates as of 23 September 2016.
- 30.
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Articles
Ayazaga’nın kaderini Turkmall teslim aldı. [Turkmall Will Tell the Destiny of Ayazga]. 2008. Sabah Newspaper, October 24.
Bilgi Üniversitesi Erdoğan’a eleştiriyi hakaret sayıp, Prof. Balıkçıoğlu’nu işten attı. [Bilgi University Sacked Professor Balıkçıoğlu, Because She Criticised Erdoğan]. 2016. Cumhuriyet Newspaper, June 16. Accessed August 30, 2016. http://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/turkiye/552267/Bilgi_Universitesi_Erdogan_a_elestiriyi_hakaret_sayip_Prof._Balikcioglu_nu_isten_atti.html#
Chamber of Architects’ Press Release. 2007, February 21.
Çıplak, Ceren. “Paramızın %3’ünü bile sanata harcamıyoruz.” [We do not spend even 3% of our money for arts] Cumhuriyet Newspaper, September 1, 2016.
Kılıç, Abdullah, “Kültür Turizime Feda Edilmesin.” [Do not sacrifice culture for tourism]. Zaman Newspaper, April 2, 2003.
Kılıç, Yasin. “400 günde bitecek denilen Sütlüce Kültür Merkezi 8 yılda bitirilemedi.” [Sütlüce Cultural Center was supposed to be completed in 400 days but is over in 8 years]. Zaman Newspaper, February 19, 2007.
Maslak’taki Kültür Mekkezi için Özel Sektöre Çağrı. [Call to Private Enterprise for the Cultural Center at Maslak]. 2007. Zaman Newspaper, February 26.
Legislation
Law No. 5225 on Tax Incentives for Cultural Investments and Enterprises, Dated July 21, 2004.
Law No. 5228 Circular on the encouragement of support (sponsorship) activities, Dated August 2, 2004.
Law No. 5706, Dated November 2, 2007.
Metropolitan Municipality Act, Numbered 5216, Dated July 10, 2004.
Municipality Act, Numbered 5393, Dated July 3, 2005.
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İnce, A. (2018). Converted Spaces, Converted Meanings: Looking at New Cultural Spaces in Istanbul through a Cultural Policy Lens. In: Girard, M., Polo, JF., Scalbert-Yücel, C. (eds) Turkish Cultural Policies in a Global World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63658-0_5
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