Abstract
In this final chapter, the analytical results are integrated with previous studies of the historical and political development of the Eastern Carpathian basin and the Lower Danube in the Late Iron Age. The existence of the seven clusters and two supra-groups fits well with most of the current ideas for this area, but at the same time reveals a series of solidarities and especially divisions which were not otherwise obvious. It is argued that the Late Iron Age society of the study area was characterized by a deep identity division between its Western and Eastern regions, a division which was reflected in the social organization of the large political entity that was established during the first century BC and first century AD. At the same time, the large identity groups acted as a catalyst for the political transformation that took place during those times, which may have otherwise not been possible. The last section of this chapter focuses on the particular problem of ethnic identities. Firstly, it is argued that Late Iron Age studies in general have had a particular affinity for issues of ethnicity, which has often acted in the detriment of our discipline, producing more biases than actual knowledge about the past. Secondly, in relation to the historically described Getae and Dacians, it is concluded that while the two Eastern and Western supra-groups may theoretically be linked to what the ancient writers called Getae and Dacians, it cannot be stated that these refer to ethnic identities as they are defined and understood today.
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Notes
- 1.
The study was carried out after gathering the data from Romania and developing the statistical method. It was aimed initially to test whether the statistical procedures developed for this study can produce usable results.
- 2.
It is uncertain whether the centre was at Sarmizegetusa Regia from the very beginning. It is conceivable that the first capital was actually at Costeşti, located only a few kilometres from Sarmizegetusa.
- 3.
In the following pages, for reasons of fluency, the words state and kingdom will be employed as perfect synonyms for political entity, although the two latter terms involve a level of organization that may not have actually been achieved, at least during the first century BC (for a condensed discussion on this topic see Lockyear 2004).
- 4.
For reasons of fluidity the name will be shortened from this point onwards to the Padea group.
- 5.
Or battle knives type 1 according to the typology of this study. In Central Serbia, as already mentioned, types 2, 3 and 4 dominated.
- 6.
One good example of this is the silver hoard of Lupu, which contained bronze and silver vessels, several large silver fibulae and a series of anthropomorphically decorated silver phalerae (Glodariu and Moga 1994).
- 7.
Lica (2000, pp. 62–91) and Jordanov (2009) give a good account of the information there is about Burebista, mostly coming from ancient sources but also the epigraphic record, and based on which the political events from the Eastern Carpathian basin and the Lower Danube were reconstructed. However, Lockyear (2004) doubts many of the achievements associated with Burebista’s name.
- 8.
- 9.
This is especially valid for the tumulus cemeteries from sites such as Cugir, Popeşti, Piscu Crăsani or Radovanu, which undoubtedly belonged to the local ruling dynasties.
- 10.
The commerce was probably done by water, as the three settlements were situated on the banks of the navigable Siret River, which flows, not far from Poiana, into the Danube and then the Black Sea. The three settlements were just over 40 km apart from each other, which could be approximated to a full day’s travel.
- 11.
It is worth mentioning that the five individuals from this group that were sexed were all identified as women, but that is hardly enough evidence.
- 12.
The most important piece of writing mentioning a priest class was left to us by Jordanes, quoting Dio Cassius (Jordanes, Getica, V.40). Other indications can also be found in the writings of Strabo (Geography, VII.3.3) and Flavius Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews, XVIII.1.5)
- 13.
- 14.
This observation is only valid of course if it is assumed that the purpose of archaeological research is to produce knowledge about how past people lived and not a narrative of the past that only mirrors today’s society.
- 15.
For a discussion on the way Strabo populated his Geography with ethnic names see the article by Edward and van der Vliet (2003).
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Popa, C.N. (2018). The Overall Picture. Concluding Interpretations. In: Modelling Identities. Quantitative Archaeology and Archaeological Modelling . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63267-4_6
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