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Bilateral Cooperation and Human Trafficking pp 217–245Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Bilateral Cooperation Against Trafficking: Nigeria and the United Kingdom

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Part of the book series: Global Ethics ((GLOETH))

Abstract

In 2004, Nigeria and the UK signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to fight against human trafficking. In this chapter, the MoU is reviewed in light of how both countries currently collaborate. Apart from the structural factors that hinder collaboration, the agreement also suffers the possibility of being forgotten, given the fact that both countries place very different priorities on the crime of human trafficking. This chapter practically illustrates the importance of mutual understanding in negotiating future collaborations so as to help bring rights that are situated and contextually meaningful to Nigerians in need of protection in the forefront of their bilateral relations.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Gordon D. Cumming, UK African Policy in the Post-Cold War Era: From Realpolitik to Moralpolitik? (2007) 42 Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 1, 106–128.

  2. 2.

    Ibid.

  3. 3.

    Ibid.

  4. 4.

    Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Nigeria: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress (1991) [online] available at: http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ (Accessed February 2, 2012).

  5. 5.

    Ibid.

  6. 6.

    Ibid.

  7. 7.

    Ibid.

  8. 8.

    Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) website, [online] available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/foreign-commonwealth-office (Accessed February 2, 2012).

  9. 9.

    Ibid.

  10. 10.

    Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) website, [online] available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/nigeria-british-relations-the-next-100-years (Accessed May 13, 2017).

  11. 11.

    Organized Crime Convention 2000, articles 7, 13, 16–20, 27, 29–30.

  12. 12.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article 9(5) [with my emphasis added].

  13. 13.

    Memorandum of Understanding on Co-operation to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Freedom of Information (FOI) request from the Home Office, 26 October 2011, FOI ref.—CR19858. [Hereafter, Nigeria/UK 2004 Anti-trafficking MOU].

  14. 14.

    A treaty is “an international agreement concluded between States in written form and governed by international law … whatever its particular designation.” Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, May 23, 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331 Art. 2 para. 1(a).

  15. 15.

    ILO, Bilateral Agreement—[online] available at: http://pstalker.com/ilo/i-bilateral.html (Accessed August 13, 2013).

  16. 16.

    Nigeria/UK 2004 Anti-trafficking MOU, para. 26.

  17. 17.

    Pracha Vasuprasat, Inter-state Cooperation on Labour Migration: Lessons learned from MOUs between Thailand and neighbouring countries, ILO Asian Regional Programme on Governance of Labour Migration Working Paper No.16, (ILO 2008) 3.

  18. 18.

    For the challenges of soft law, see Christine M. Chinkin, The Challenge of Soft Law: Development and Change in International Law, (1989) 38 INT’L & COMP. L.Q. p. 851; Kal Raustiala, Form and Substance in International Agreements, (2005) 99 AM. J. INT’L L. p. 587.

  19. 19.

    Gabriella Blum, Bilateralism, Multilateralism, and the Architecture of International Law (2008) 49 Harvard International Law Journal, no. 2, p. 330.

  20. 20.

    “Fragmentation” of international legislation, meaning the existence of different and somewhat autonomous rationales underlying a variety of regimes each proclaimed to be universal. See International Law Commission, Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties Arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law, June 30, 2005, At its fifty-fourth session, in 2002, the Commission decided that the title of the topic should be amended to read as above rather than “Risks ensuing from the fragmentation of international law”. See Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/57/10), para. 494. Available [ONLINE] at: http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/summaries/1_9.htm#_ftnref1. [Accessed January 10, 2013].

  21. 21.

    See ILO, Bilateral Agreement…

  22. 22.

    Nigeria/UK 2004 Anti-trafficking MOU, para. 3.

  23. 23.

    The author was a participant during this roundtable meeting- organised by AFRUCA and supported by City Parochial in June 2010 in London.

  24. 24.

    Nigeria/UK 2004 Anti-trafficking MOU, para. 25.

  25. 25.

    At the very least, there is no evidence of trafficking from the UK to Nigeria.

  26. 26.

    Glynn Rankin, Nick Kinsella, Human Trafficking in The Importance of Knowledge Information Exchange, Intelligence Management Advanced Information and Knowledge Processing (Springer 2011) 159–180.

  27. 27.

    Ibid.

  28. 28.

    UNODC, Anti-Human Trafficking Manual for Criminal Justice Practitioners (UNODC 2011).

  29. 29.

    Ibid.

  30. 30.

    Nigeria/UK 2004 Anti-trafficking MOU, para. 7. Sotonye Leroy Wakama, Transnational Organized Crime And The Role of Extradition & Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties, Resource Material Series No. 57 [online] available at: http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/PDF_rms/no57/57-13.pdf [Accessed April 27, 2012]; For the UK See section 7 Crime (International Co-operation) Act (2003) [online] available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/32/section/7 and section 13, [online] available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/32/section/13 [Accessed April 27, 2012].Organized Crime Convention 2000, Art. 16(8).

  31. 31.

    Organized Crime Convention 2000, Art. 16(8).

  32. 32.

    Nigeria/UK 2004 Anti-trafficking MOU, para. 12.

  33. 33.

    Interview with Criminal Justice Officer in London, UK [June 2013].

  34. 34.

    Nigeria/UK 2004 Anti-trafficking MOU, para. 13.

  35. 35.

    See UNODC, Anti-Human Trafficking Manual … p. 13.

  36. 36.

    Myriam C., Jenny P. and Peter G., Beyond Borders, Human Trafficking From Nigeria to the United Kingdom (Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR) 2013) 87.

  37. 37.

    Organized Crime Convention 2000, article 16(8).

  38. 38.

    Anne Gallagher, International Law of human Trafficking (Cambridge University Press 2010) 406.

  39. 39.

    Nigeria/UK 2004 Anti-trafficking MOU, para. 9.

  40. 40.

    Interview with UKHTC officials in Birmingham, UK [October 2011].

  41. 41.

    Interview with NAPTIP official—Research and intelligence Department in Abuja Nigeria [December 2011].

  42. 42.

    Interview with Met Police in London, [August 2012].

  43. 43.

    Interview with UKHTC official in Birmingham, UK [September 2011].

  44. 44.

    Interview with NAPTIP official—Investigations Department in Abuja Nigeria [December 2011].

  45. 45.

    Nigeria/UK 2004 Anti-trafficking MOU, para. 22.

  46. 46.

    Interview with NAPTIP official in Abuja, Nigeria [December 2011].

  47. 47.

    UNODC, Toolkit to Combat Trafficking in Persons (online edition UNODC 2008).

  48. 48.

    Organized Crime Protocol 2000, article 19.

  49. 49.

    Dutch tribunal to rule on sex trafficking case—Radio Netherlands Worldwide (December 3, 2009) [online] available at: http://www.rnw.nl/international-justice/article/dutch-tribunal-rule-sex-trafficking-case [Accessed April 26, 2012].

  50. 50.

    Ibid.

  51. 51.

    Ibid.

  52. 52.

    Best Practice; UNDP, Law Enforcement Manual for Fighting against Trafficking of Human Beings, [online] available at: www.undp.ro/governance/Best%20Practice%20Manuals [Accessed April 26, 2012].

  53. 53.

    Nigeria/UK 2004 Anti-trafficking MOU, para. 23–24.

  54. 54.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article 10(2).

  55. 55.

    Organized Crime Convention 2000, article 32(1).

  56. 56.

    Ibid.

  57. 57.

    Interview with international donor in the Netherlands Embassy Abuja Nigeria [February 2012].

  58. 58.

    Interview with UKHTC in Birmingham, UK [September 2011].

  59. 59.

    International Organisation for Migration (IOM), EXIT—Organisation to combat Human Trafficking from Africa (Austria), Payoke vzw (NGO Belgium), Les Amis du Bus des Femmes (NGO France), Religiosas Adorattrices—Proyecto Esperenza (NGO Spain), Lefoe (NGO Austria), Nadeschda (NGO Germany), Slavery International (NGO U.K.), Girls Power Initiative (NGO Nigeria), NAPTIP (National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons [Nigeria]).

  60. 60.

    Enhancing Multi-Stakeholder Cooperation to Fight Human Trafficking in Countries of Origin and Destination—Nigeria, [online] available at: http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/entity.action?id=e226e9fa-e815-417e-b813-8c5a6eae6624 (Accessed April 9, 2012).

  61. 61.

    Na Wa Film Festival (Restricted Document from the UKHTC) see also UNODC, Partnership Opportunities Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants (UNODC 2010).

  62. 62.

    Thanh-Dam Truong, Governance and Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa: Rethinking Best Practices In Migration Management (UNESCO, 2008) 710.

  63. 63.

    Ernst B. Haas, ‘Why Collaborate?: Issue-Linkage and International Regimes’ (1980) 32 World Politics, No. 3, p. 361.

  64. 64.

    Ibid. 365.

  65. 65.

    Myriam C., Jenny P. and Peter G., Beyond Borders, Human Trafficking from Nigeria to the United Kingdom (Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR) 2013) 88.

  66. 66.

    UNIBEN Observatory, Prevailing Perception of Trafficking, Prevention and Anti-Trafficking Activities among Community Leaders in Edo State, Nigeria, Survey Report (Benin—University of Benin Observatory 2011).

  67. 67.

    Interview with now retired Met Police Officer (Andy Desmond) in Nottingham, UK (August 3, 2012).

  68. 68.

    Thomas Risse, and Kathryn Sikkink, “The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practoces: Introduction” in Thomas Risse, Stephen C. Ropp and Kathryn Sikkink, (eds.) The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change (Cambridge University Press, 1999) 23.

  69. 69.

    Ibid. 23–4.

  70. 70.

    US Department of State, 2010, Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Report 2016.

  71. 71.

    UNIBEN Observatory, Why Benin City? An Assessment of Edo State and Benin City Endemic Areas in Nigeria, (University of Benin Observatory 2011).

  72. 72.

    Ibid.

  73. 73.

    CEOP, Strategic Threat Assessment: Child Trafficking in the UK (CEOP 2010).

  74. 74.

    Cherti et al. Beyond Borders …

  75. 75.

    UNIBEN Observatory, Prevailing Perception of Trafficking, Prevention and Anti-Trafficking Activities among Community Leaders in Edo State, Nigeria, Survey Report (University of Benin Observatory 2011).

  76. 76.

    Ibid.

  77. 77.

    Ibid.

  78. 78.

    Stephan Haggard and Beth A. Simmons, ‘Theories of international regimes’ (1987) 41 International Organization No. 3, 510.

  79. 79.

    Truong, Governance and Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa…

  80. 80.

    Ernst B. Haas, ‘Why Collaborate?… p. 3.

  81. 81.

    Peter M. Haas, ‘Do regimes matter? Epistemic Communities and Mediterranean Pollution Control’ (1989) 43 International Organization 377–403.

  82. 82.

    Truong, Governance and Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa … p. 710.

  83. 83.

    Ibid.

  84. 84.

    Ernst B. Haas, ‘Why Collaborate? … p. 369.

  85. 85.

    Susan Kneebone and Julie Debeljak, Transnational Crime and Human Rights: Response to Human Trafficking in the Greater Mekong (Routledge 2012).

  86. 86.

    Ernst B. Haas, ‘Why Collaborate? … p. 371.

  87. 87.

    Myriam C., Jenny P. and Peter G., Beyond Borders, Human Trafficking from Nigeria to the United Kingdom (Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR) 2013).

  88. 88.

    R. Vayrynen, ‘Illegal Immigration, Human Trafficking and Organized Crime’(UNU-WIDER Discussion paper no. 27, 2003) 20.

  89. 89.

    Blair, T. ‘PM speech to the Confederation of British Industry on migration’ (April 27, 2004) [online] Available at: http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/page5708.asp [Accessed 8 May 2005] cited in Christina Boswell, Meng-Hsuan Chou and Julie Smith, Reconciling Demand for Labour Migration with Public Concerns about Immigration: Germany and the UK, (London: Anglo-German Foundation for the Study of Industrial Society 2005) 20.

  90. 90.

    Anthony Giddens, ‘Chronicle of a Crisis Foretold: The Politics of Irregular Migration, Human Trafficking and People Smuggling in the UK’, (2005) 7 The British Journal of Politics and International Relations (3) 324.

  91. 91.

    Ibid. 331.

  92. 92.

    Christina Boswell, Meng-Hsuan Chou and Julie Smith, Reconciling Demand for Labour Migration with Public Concerns about Immigration: Germany and the UK, (Anglo-German Foundation for the Study of Industrial Society 2005).

  93. 93.

    Aderanti Adepoju, Femke van Noorloos and Annelies Zoomers, ‘Europe’s Migration Agreements with Migrant-Sending Countries in the Global South: A Critical Review’ (2010) 48 International Migration (3) 51.

  94. 94.

    Ibid.

  95. 95.

    F. Woud “Terugkeer in het kader van internationale handelsverdragen: het geval—Cotonou”, in Adviescommissie voor Vreemdelingenzaken, Advies terugkeerbeleid 2004 cited in Adepoju et al. (n 93) 65.

  96. 96.

    Adepoju et al., Europe’s Migration Agreements … p. 65.

  97. 97.

    Adepoju et al., Europe’s Migration Agreements … p. 65.

  98. 98.

    Ibid. 68.

  99. 99.

    Ernst B. Haas, ‘Why Collaborate? … p. 371.

  100. 100.

    Cherti et al. Beyond Borders …

  101. 101.

    Tom Obokata, Trafficking of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective: Towards a Holistic Approach (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2006); Jonathan Todres, Widening Our Lens: Incorporating Essential Perspectives in the Fight Against Human Trafficking, (2011) 33 Mich. J. Int’l L. 53–75.

  102. 102.

    Sakiko Fukuda-Parr, New Threats to Human Security in the Era of Globalization, (2003) 4 Journal of Human Development: A Multi-Disciplinary Journal for People-Centred Development, (2) 173.

  103. 103.

    Magdalena Ionescu, A Human Security Approach to Anti-Trafficking Policies in the EU: Tackling the Structural Sources of Vulnerability (undated).

  104. 104.

    F. Anthias, “Gendering Migration: The Case of Southern Europe” in S. Ghatak and A. Showstack Sassoon (eds.) Migration and Mobility: The European Context (Palgrave 2001) 62.

  105. 105.

    ATMG, All Change: Preventing Trafficking in the UK (Anti-Slavery International, 2012).

  106. 106.

    Kirsten Foot, Actors & Activities in the Anti-Human Trafficking Movement, Published in The Dark Side of Globalization, Ramesh Thakur and Jorge Heine (Eds), United Nations Press, 2010. http://faculty.washington.edu/kfoot/Publications/101019-Foot-GSN-ATP.pdf (Accessed May 10).

  107. 107.

    Ibid. Kirsten Foot.

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    May Ikeora

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Ikeora, M. (2018). Bilateral Cooperation Against Trafficking: Nigeria and the United Kingdom. In: Bilateral Cooperation and Human Trafficking . Global Ethics. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62825-7_7

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