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International Cooperation on Cross-Border Human Trafficking

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Bilateral Cooperation and Human Trafficking

Part of the book series: Global Ethics ((GLOETH))

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Abstract

In this chapter, the anti-trafficking regime is explored from the perspective of international and regional laws, and it also examines why and how states cooperate in this regard against the backdrop of regime theory. In support of learning, knowledge and diversity that align with a human-centred approach examined in Chap. 1, Chap. 3 leans more to the constructivist standpoint for international cooperation which sets a contextual articulation of the cooperating states in a way that possibly promotes compliance. In other words, it considers the identity of states, the actual problem of trafficking and how both states view the problem in order to find the right solution.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Margaret A. Young, “Regime Interaction in Creating, Implementing and Enforcing International Law” in Margaret A. Young (ed.) Regime Interaction in International Law: Facing Fragmentation (Cambridge University Press 2012) 85.

  2. 2.

    Stephen Krasner, “Structural Causes and Regime Consequences: Regimes as Intervening Variables” in Stephen Krasner (ed.) International Regimes (University Press 1983) 1–21.

  3. 3.

    Ibid.

  4. 4.

    Eric Brahm, “International Regimes” in Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess (eds.), Beyond Intractability (Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder) Posted: September 2005 http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/international-regimes (Accessed 20 November 2013).

  5. 5.

    Stephan Haggard and Beth A. Simmons, ‘Theories of international regimes’ (1987) 41 International Organization No. 3, pp. 491–517.

  6. 6.

    See Andreas Hasenclever, Theories of International Regimes (Cambridge University Press 1997) 13.

  7. 7.

    Megan Brand, International Cooperation And The Anti-trafficking Regime, (Working Paper Series No. 71, Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford Department of International Development, University of Oxford 2010).

  8. 8.

    See the United Nations Treaty Collection available [online] at http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-12-a&chapter=18&lang=en [Accessed 13 August 2013].

  9. 9.

    It is crucial to recognise that the 1949 Convention came out of a draft convention in 1937 by the League of Nations that was intended to unify all previous international documents on trafficking: the 1904, 1910, 1921 and the 1933 treaties. See UN Doc. E/1072 1948. Megan Brand, International Cooperation and the Anti-trafficking Regime, (Working Paper Series No. 71, Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford Department of International Development, University of Oxford 2010).

  10. 10.

    See Brand, International Cooperation and the Anti-trafficking Regime (n 1) 11–26.

  11. 11.

    Report of Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime on its second session, held in Vienna from 8 to 12 March 1999, see UN Doc.A/AC.254/11 p. 4.

  12. 12.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article 2(a–c).

  13. 13.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article (5).

  14. 14.

    Phyllis Coontz and Catherine Griebel, ‘International Approaches to Human Trafficking: The call for gender-sensitive perspective in International Law’ (2004) 4 Women’s Health Journal p. 51.

  15. 15.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article (5).

  16. 16.

    Organized Crime Convention 2000, article 15.

  17. 17.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article 6.

  18. 18.

    Ibid. article 6 (1).

  19. 19.

    Ibid. article 6(3).

  20. 20.

    Anne Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking (Cambridge University Press 2010) 139; see also Tom Obokata, Trafficking of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective: Towards a Holistic Approach (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2006).

  21. 21.

    Trafficking Protocol, 2000 article 8(2).

  22. 22.

    Travaux Préparatoires of the negotiations for the elaboration of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto, UNODC (2006) at 380.

  23. 23.

    Organized Crime Convention 2000, article 31(7).

  24. 24.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article 9.

  25. 25.

    See Obokata, Trafficking of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective … p. 87.

  26. 26.

    See Travaux Préparatoires of the negotiations for the elaboration of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto, UNODC (2006) at 421.

  27. 27.

    See Obokata, Trafficking of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective (n 21).

  28. 28.

    Anne T. Gallagher, Human Rights and Human Trafficking: Quagmire or Fir Ground? A Response to James Hathaway, (2009) 49 Virginia Journal of International Law (4) 789; Susan Kneebone and Julie Debeljak, Transnational Crime and Human Rights: Response to Human Trafficking in the Greater Mekong Subregion (Routledge 2012).

  29. 29.

    Jonathan Todres, ‘Widening Our Lens: Incorporating Essential Perspectives in the Fight Against Human Trafficking’ (2011) 33 Mich. J. Int’l L. pp. 53–75.

  30. 30.

    James Hathaway, ‘The Human Rights Quagmire of “Human Trafficking”’ (2008) 49 Virginia Journal of International Law (1) pp. 1–59.

  31. 31.

    Todres, ‘Widening Our Lens’ … p. 63; see also Robert S. Adler, ‘Flawed Thinking: Addressing Decision Biases in Negotiation’ (2005) 20 Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution. p. 712. Anchoring from the field of negotiation demonstrates that initial step in negotiations (first offer), significantly influences and shapes the subsequent course of action and final outcomes.

  32. 32.

    Ivy C. Lee and Mie Lewis, ‘Human Trafficking from a Legal Advocate’s Perspective: History, Legal Framework And Current Anti-Trafficking Efforts’ (2003) 10 University of California p. 187.

  33. 33.

    Brand (n 1).

  34. 34.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article 11(1).

  35. 35.

    Trafficking Protocol, 2000 article (7) I—‘each State Party shall consider adopting legislative or other appropriate measures that permit victims of trafficking in persons to remain in its territory, temporarily or permanently, in appropriate cases’.

  36. 36.

    John Morison and Beth Crosland, The Trafficking and Smuggling of Refugees: The End Game in European Asylum Policy? (Working Paper No. 39, New Issues in Refugee Research, 2001); Susan Kneebone and Julie Debeljak, Transnational Crime and Human Rights: Response to Human Trafficking in the Greater Mekong (Routledge 2012).

  37. 37.

    Susan Kneebone, ‘The Refugee–Trafficking Nexus: Making Good (The) Connections’ (2010) 29 Refugee Survey Quarterly No. 1, p. 137.

  38. 38.

    Organized Crime Convention 2000, Article 2(a) Use of Terms.

  39. 39.

    United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Trafficking in Human Beings in South-eastern Europe xiii (UNICEF 2002) 146.

  40. 40.

    Francesca Dina Haynes, ‘Used, Abused, Arrested and Deported: Extending Immigration Benefits to Protect the Victims of Trafficking and to Secure the Prosecution of Traffickers’ (2004) 26 Human Rights Quarterly p. 245.

  41. 41.

    Ibid.

  42. 42.

    Ann Jordan, The Annotated Guide to the Complete UN Trafficking Protocol (Global Rights 2002).

  43. 43.

    Haynes, ‘Used, Abused, Arrested and Deported’ … p. 245; Fanny Polonia Molina, ‘Japan, The Mecca for Trafficking in Columbian Women (2001) [online] available at: http://www.libertadlatina.org/paper30ColombiaJapan.pdf (Accessed 20 August 2013).

  44. 44.

    Jo Doezema, ‘Now You See Her, Now You Don’t: Sex Workers at The UN Trafficking Protocol Negotiations’ (2005) 16 Social & Legal Studies, p. 79.

  45. 45.

    Ann Jordan, ‘Human Rights or Wrongs? The Struggle for a Rights-based Response to Trafficking in Human Beings’ (2002) 10 Gender and Development (1) p. 32.

  46. 46.

    See Doezema, ‘Now You See Her, Now You Don’t’ … p. 80.

  47. 47.

    Ibid.

  48. 48.

    Sarah H. Krieg, ‘Trafficking in Human Beings: The EU Approach between Border Control, Law Enforcement and Human Rights’ (2009) 15 European Law Journal, No. 6, pp. 775–790.

  49. 49.

    Ibid.

  50. 50.

    Elizabeth Bruch, ‘Models Wanted: The Search for an Effective Response to Human Trafficking’ (2004) 40 Stanford Journal of International Law, p. 14.

  51. 51.

    Todres ‘Widening Our Lens’ … p. 65.

  52. 52.

    Ann Gallagher ‘Human Rights and the New UN Protocols on Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling: A Preliminary Analysis’ (2001) 23 Human Rights Quarterly, pp. 975–1004.

  53. 53.

    Organized Crime Convention 2000, article (32).

  54. 54.

    Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking … p. 96.

  55. 55.

    97/154/JHA: Joint Action of 24 February 1997 adopted by the Council on the basis of Article K.3 of the Treaty on European Union concerning action to combat trafficking in human beings and sexual exploitation of children.

  56. 56.

    Art.5 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights which came into effect in November 2009, prohibits trafficking in human beings.

  57. 57.

    This replaced the 1997 Joint Action on Trafficking and was further repealed for the adoption of a new Framework Agreement in 2009.

  58. 58.

    Council Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004. The last two legal instruments were adopted by the Council of European Union.

  59. 59.

    Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking …

  60. 60.

    Council of the European Union Directive 2004/81/EC on the residence permit issued to third country nationals who are victims of trafficking. The UK opted out of its provisions so it does not apply to the UK.

  61. 61.

    Council Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004 on the residence permit issued to third-country nationals who are victims of trafficking in human beings or who have been the subject of an action to facilitate illegal immigration, who cooperate with the competent authorities; see also the Explanatory Memorandum; see also R. Raffaelli, ‘The European Approach to the Protection of trafficking Victims: The Council of Europe Convention, the EU Directive and the Italian Experience’ (2009) 10 German Law Journal p. 205.

  62. 62.

    See Directive 2011/36/EU Of The European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims, and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:101:0001:0011:EN:PDF [Accessed 11 July 2012]. The UK opted into this Directive on 22 March 2011.

  63. 63.

    Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings and its Explanatory Report, Warsaw, 16.V.2005, Council of Europe Treaty Series—No. 197—Chapter III: articles 10–17.

  64. 64.

    THB-GRETA, LD1, Group of Experts on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings, Strasbourg (27 February 2009) at par. 2 cited in Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking … p. 126.

  65. 65.

    Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking … p. 126.

  66. 66.

    Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking … p. 127.

  67. 67.

    Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings, and protecting victims, repealing Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA/* COM/2010/0095 final—COD 2010/0065*/at para. 11.

  68. 68.

    Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking … p. 127.

  69. 69.

    The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa can be found on the website of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, at: www.achpr.org/english/_info/women_en.html [Accessed 5 March 2013].

  70. 70.

    Amadu Sessay and Kehinde Olayode, Regionalisation and the War on Human Trafficking in West Africa, Presented at the GARNET Conference on “Mapping Integration and Regionalism in a Global World: The EU and regional Governance outside the EU”, Bordeaux (17–19 September 2008).

  71. 71.

    In 2002, the 2nd Africa-Europe Ministerial Meeting was held in Ouagadougou. During this meeting, the “Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings Especially Women and Children”, also known as “The Ouagadougou Action Plan”, was drafted. For the complete draft, see [online] available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/development/body/eu_africa/docs/council_outcome_ouaga_2002_en.pdf [Accessed 20 July 2012]. This plan was adopted at the third Africa-Europe Meeting held in Addis Ababa in 2004.

  72. 72.

    See sub-regional experts on trafficking in persons was held in Lome, Togo, from 2nd to 3rd December 2002 and jointly organised with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (ODC).

  73. 73.

    ECOWAS (A/PI/94) [online] available at: http://www.iss.co.za/AF/RegOrg/unity_to_union/pdfs/ecowas/4ConExtradition.pdf [Accessed 20 July 2012].

  74. 74.

    ECOWAS (A/PI/92) Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters of 29 July 1992.

  75. 75.

    See Amadu Sessay & Kehinde Olayode, Regionalisation and the War on Human Trafficking In West Africa …

  76. 76.

    Ibid.

  77. 77.

    UNODC, Trafficking in Persons & Smuggling of Migrants, Guidelines on International Cooperation, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Regional Programme Office for South Eastern Europe, 2010.

  78. 78.

    Ibid.; see also Office of The High Commissioner for Human Rights, Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking, presented to the Economic and Social Council as an addendum to the report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (E/2002/68/Add. 1).

  79. 79.

    OHCHR, Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking (United Nations 2010).

  80. 80.

    Ibid. Foreword 4.

  81. 81.

    Richard Little, ‘International Regimes’ in The Globalisation of World Politics (4th edition Oxford University Press 2009) 296–311.

  82. 82.

    Kenneth A. Oye (ed.) Cooperation under Anarchy (Princeton University Press 1986); see other definition in A. J. R. Groom, “The Setting in World Society” in Groom, A. J. R. and Paul G. Taylor (eds.) Frameworks for International Cooperation (St. Martin’s Press 1990) 3–11.

  83. 83.

    Helen Milner, ‘Review—International Theories of Cooperation among Nations: Strengths and Weaknesses Cooperation among Nations by Joseph Grieco; Saving the Mediterranean by Peter Haas’ (1992) 44 World Politics No. 3, 466–496.

  84. 84.

    Organise Crime Convention 2000, Art. 1.

  85. 85.

    See Brand, International Cooperation and the Anti-trafficking Regime.

  86. 86.

    See above Oye (n 83): See also Helen Milner, ‘International Theories of Cooperation among Nations: Strength and Weakness’ (1992) 44 World Politics pp. 466–496; Seong-Woo Yi, ‘Why Do Nation-States Cooperate under Anarchy?: Domestic Factors for Interstate Cooperation’ (2007) Jeju Peace Institute Research Series [3] 1.

  87. 87.

    Ibid. Yi ‘Why Do Nation-States Cooperate under Anarchy?’ … p. 3.

  88. 88.

    Ibid. 3.

  89. 89.

    Kenneth W. Abbott and Duncan Snidal, “Pathways to International Cooperation” in Eyal Benvenisti and Moshe Hirsh (eds.) The Impact of International Law on International Cooperation: Theoretical Perspectives (Cambridge University Press 2004).

  90. 90.

    See Yi ‘Why Do Nation-States Cooperate under Anarchy?’… p. 2.

  91. 91.

    Kal Raustiala and Anne-Marie Slaughter “International Law, International Relations and Compliance” in B. A. Simmons (ed.), International Law (Vol. III Sage Publication 2008) 332.

  92. 92.

    Ibid. 333.

  93. 93.

    Andreas Hasenclever, Peter Mayer, Volker Rittberger, ‘Integrating Theories of International Regimes’ (2000) 26 Review of International Studies, No. 1; Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (New York: McGraw-Hill 1979).

  94. 94.

    Hegemonic Stability Theory (HST) is a theory of international relations that indicates that the international system is more likely to remain stable when a single nation-state is the dominant world power.

  95. 95.

    Milner, International Theories of Cooperation among Nations … p. 470.

  96. 96.

    Raustiala and Slaughter, International Law … p. 332.

  97. 97.

    Janie Chuang, ‘The United States as Global Sheriff: Using Unilateral Sanctions to Combat Human Trafficking’ (2006) 27 Michigan Journal of International Law, p. 158.

  98. 98.

    Trafficking Victims of Protection Act 2000, section 10a.

  99. 99.

    Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, Div. A of Pub. L. No. 106–386, Section 108, as amended.

  100. 100.

    Trafficking Victims of Protection Act 2000, Sec. 110(d)(1)(B); see also Anne Gallagher, “Human Rights and Human Trafficking in Thailand: A Shadow TIP Report” in Karen Beeks and Delila Amir (eds) Trafficking and the Global Sex Industry (Lexington Books 2006) 140–41.

  101. 101.

    Ibid.

  102. 102.

    Susan Strange, ‘Cave! Hic Dragoness: A Critique of Regime Analysis’ (1982) 36 International Organization No. 2, 185–205.

  103. 103.

    For regime legitimacy, see Helmut Breitmeier, The Legitimacy of International Regimes (Ashgate Publishing 2008).

  104. 104.

    George W. Downs and Michael A. Jones, ‘Reputation, Compliance, and International Law’ (2002) 31 The Journal of Legal Studies, No. 1, 95–114.

  105. 105.

    George W. Downs and Michael A. Jones, “Reputation, Compliance and Development” in Eyal Benvenisti and Moshe Hirsh (eds.) The Impact of International Law on International Cooperation: Theoretical Perspectives (Cambridge University Press 2004).

  106. 106.

    Ibid.

  107. 107.

    Ibid. 133.

  108. 108.

    Janie Chuang, ‘The United States as global sheriff: Using unilateral sanctions to combat human trafficking’ (2006) 27 Michigan Journal of International Law No. 2, 456.

  109. 109.

    Gallagher, Human Rights and Human Trafficking in Thailand … 139.

  110. 110.

    Harold D. Hongju Koh, ‘How Is International Human Rights Law Enforced?’ (1999) 74 International Human Rights Law pp. 1396–1417.

  111. 111.

    Ibid.

  112. 112.

    David Armstrong, Theo Farrell and Helene Lambert, International Law and International Relations (Cambridge University Press 2007) 109.

  113. 113.

    Susan Kneebone and Julie Debeljak, Transnational Crime and Human Rights: Response to Human Trafficking in the Greater Mekong (Routledge 2012) 184.

  114. 114.

    As mandated by the Organize Crime Convention; See also Armstrong et al., International Law (n 113) 106.

  115. 115.

    The international community concludes that there is a ‘global public good’ to cooperate against trafficking.

  116. 116.

    Kneebone and Debeljak, Transnational Crime and Human Rights … p. 185; See also Brand (n 1).

  117. 117.

    Alexander Bett, International Cooperation in the Global Refugee Regime (GEG Working Paper 2008/44).

  118. 118.

    Stein, A., ‘The Politics of Linkage’ (1980) 33 World Politics, no. 1 pp. 62–81. cited in ibid. 9.

  119. 119.

    Bett, International Cooperation … p. 11.

  120. 120.

    Cited in Koh, ‘How Is International Human Rights Law Enforced?’ … p. 1404.

  121. 121.

    Ibid. 1405.

  122. 122.

    Seo-Young Cho and Krishna Chaitanya Vadlamannati, ‘Compliance with the Anti-Trafficking Protocol’ (2012) 28 European Journal of Political Economy pp. 249–265.

  123. 123.

    Oona A. Hathaway, ‘Do Human Rights Treaties Make a Difference?’ (2002) 111 Yale L.J. 1936; see also Cho and Vadlamannati ‘Compliance with the Anti-Trafficking Protocol’.

  124. 124.

    Krasner asserts that human rights Treaties are not optimistic from a realist viewpoint in Stephen Krasner, “Sovereignty, Regimes and Human Rights” in Peter Mayer and Volker Rittberger (eds.), Regime Theory and International Relations (Clarendon Press1993) 1–22.

  125. 125.

    Beth Simmons, Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics (Cambridge University Press 2009).

  126. 126.

    See Cho and Vadlamannati ‘Compliance with the Anti-Trafficking Protocol’…

  127. 127.

    Ibid.

  128. 128.

    Ibid.

  129. 129.

    Ibid.

  130. 130.

    Nilufer Karacasulu, Elif Uzgören ‘Explaining Social Constructivist Contributions to Security Studies’ (2007) PERCEPTIONS pp. 27–48.

  131. 131.

    Andreas Hasenclever, Peter Mayer, Volker Rittberger, ‘Integrating Theories of International Regimes’ (2000) 26 Review of International Studies, No. 1.

  132. 132.

    Export Controls, Center for International Trade and Security, University of Georgia—(A Paper Presented at the 43d Annual ISA Convention New Orleans, LA March 24–27, 2002) http://isanet.ccit.arizona.edu/noarchive/nikonov.html (Accessed 12 April 2013).

  133. 133.

    Hasenclever et al., Integrating Theories of International Regimes’ … pp. 136–139.

  134. 134.

    Steve Smith and Patricia Owens, “Alternative Approaches to International Theory”, in John Baylis and Steve Smith (eds.) The Globalization of World Politics (Oxford University Press 2001) 274; Emanuel Adler, ‘Seizing the Middle Ground: Constructivism in World Politics’ (1997) 3 European Journal of International Relations, No. 3, pp. 319–363.

  135. 135.

    David Armstrong, Theo Farrell and Helene Lanbert, International Law and International Relations (Cambridge University Press 2007) cited in Kneebone and Debeljak, Transnational Crime and Human Rights … p. 185.

  136. 136.

    Kneebone and Debeljak, Transnational Crime and Human Rights … p. 185.

  137. 137.

    Harold Hongju Koh, ‘Transnational Legal Process’ (1996) 75 Nebraska Law Review p. 184.

  138. 138.

    Kneebone and Debeljak, Transnational Crime and Human Rights … p. 185.

  139. 139.

    Kal Raustiala and Anne-Marie Slaughter “International Law, International Relations and Compliance” in B. A. Simmons (ed.), International Law Vol. III (Sage Publication 2008).

  140. 140.

    Cited in Kneebone and Debeljak, Transnational Crime and Human Rights … p. 186.

  141. 141.

    Ibid.

  142. 142.

    Beth Simmons, Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics (Cambridge University Press 2009).

  143. 143.

    Peter M. Haas, ‘Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination’ (1992) 46 International Organization, No. 1, p. 3.

  144. 144.

    Ibid.

  145. 145.

    Ibid.

  146. 146.

    Tanja A. Börzel, Why Do States Not Obey the Law? (Paper prepared for presentation at ARENA, University of Oslo, June 2002).

  147. 147.

    Thomas Risse and Kathryn Sikkink, “The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practoces: Introduction” in Thomas Risse, Stephen C. Ropp and Kathryn Sikkink, (eds.) The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change (Cambridge University Press, 1999) 5–6.

  148. 148.

    See Börzel, Why Do States not Obey the Law…

  149. 149.

    Interview with Nigerian Officials in Abuja Nigeria [December 2011].

  150. 150.

    Beth Simmons, Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics (Cambridge University Press 2009).

  151. 151.

    Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im “Towards a Cross-Cultural Approach to Defining International Standards of Human Rights: The Meaning of Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment” in Mark Goodale ed. Human Rights: An Anthropological Reader (Wiley-Blackwell 2009) 69.

  152. 152.

    Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im (eds.) Human Rights and Cross-Cultural Perspectives: A Quest for Consensus (University of Pennsylvania Press 1991).

  153. 153.

    Alison D. Renteln, ‘The Unanswered Challenge of Relativism and the Consequences for Human Rights’ (1985) 7 Human Rights Quarterly, 514–540.

  154. 154.

    Haas, ‘Epistemic Communities’ … p. 2.

  155. 155.

    Elvin Hatch, Culture and Morality: The Relativity of Values in Anthropology (Columbia University Press 1983) 12; Clifford Geertz, ‘Distinguished Lecture: Anti-Relativism’ (1984) 86 American Anthropologist p. 265.

  156. 156.

    See An-Na’im “Towards a Cross-Cultural Approach …” p. 82002E

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Ikeora, M. (2018). International Cooperation on Cross-Border Human Trafficking. In: Bilateral Cooperation and Human Trafficking . Global Ethics. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62825-7_3

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