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Conceptualising Anti-Trafficking and Protecting People

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Bilateral Cooperation and Human Trafficking

Part of the book series: Global Ethics ((GLOETH))

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Abstract

This chapter examines the diverse perspectives of human trafficking set against the backdrop of human rights as a cause and the consequences of this heinous act. It argues that while a human rights-based approach is undoubtedly useful, it suffers several limitations, including the issue of statism, as noted by cosmopolitanism scholars. This chapter introduces a human-centred approach aimed at broadening the human rights-based approach to the actual need and grievances of those it aims to protect—people who are at risk/victims/survivors of trafficking.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Richard Firman, “Human Trafficking, Human Security and the Balkans” in H. Richard Friman and Simon Reich (eds.), Human trafficking and the Balkans (University of Pittsburgh Press 2007).

  2. 2.

    Conny Rijken, ‘The European Union’s Struggle to Realize a Human Rights-Based Approach to Trafficking in Human Beings: A Call on the EU to Take THB-Sensitive Action in Relevant Areas of Law’ (2009) 25 Connecticut Journal of Intl Law pp. 49–79. Alexis A. Aronowitz, “Trafficking Nexus and the Myths Surrounding Human trafficking,” in William Frank McDonald (ed.) Sociology of Crime, Law and Deviance Volume 13: Immigration, crime and justice (Emerald Group Publishing 2009) p. 119.

  3. 3.

    United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner, (2014) Human Rights and Human Trafficking Fact Sheet No. 36 http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FS36_en.pdf (Accessed 10 May 2017).

  4. 4.

    Slavery Convention, 1926, article 1; Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, 1956, article 1; Convention Concerning Forced and Compulsory Labour, 1930, articles 1, 2 and 4; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 4; Convention Concerning the Abolition of Forced Labour, 1957, article 1; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 8; European Convention on Human Rights, article 4; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, article 5; Rome Statute, articles 7 (c) and 7 (g).

  5. 5.

    Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 3; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 6; Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 6; European Convention on Human Rights, article 2; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, article 4.

  6. 6.

    Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 5; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 7; Convention against Torture; Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 37.

  7. 7.

    European Convention on Human Rights, article 3; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, article 5; Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa, article 4; Non-treaty source: Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals who are not Nationals of the Country in which They Live, article 6.

  8. 8.

    Ibid.; see also Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) article 6.

  9. 9.

    Kathleen Fitzgibbon, Modern-Day Slavery? (2003) 12 African Security Review, No. 1, pp. 81–89.

  10. 10.

    “Jus cogens are rules within customary international law which have a special status above treaty-based law”; See Sandhya Drew, Human Trafficking and Human Rights: Law and Practice (Legal Action Group 2009).

  11. 11.

    Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, 226 U.N.T.S. 3, entered into force April 30, 1957—See Article 1 and 7.

  12. 12.

    It also violates articles 2, 3 and 5 of the ECHR.

  13. 13.

    Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia, Application no. 25965/04, Council of Europe : European Court of Human Rights, 7 January 2010.

  14. 14.

    See OOO & Others v Metropolitan Police [2011] EWHC 1246 (QB) quoting Siliadin v France, European Court of Human Rights Application no 73316/01, para. 285; see also Holly Cullen, Siliadin v France: Positive Obligations under Article 4 of the European Convention on Human Rights (2006) 6 Human Rights Law Review, No. 3, pp. 585–592.

  15. 15.

    CEDAW—article 6.

  16. 16.

    Convention on the Rights of the Child, articles 35 and 37.

  17. 17.

    Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 3.

  18. 18.

    Anne Gallagher, International Law of human Trafficking (Cambridge University Press, 2010). See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 15 (1986) on the position of aliens under the Covenant, para. 7. “Aliens … have an inherent right to life, protected by law, and may not be arbitrarily deprived of life. They may not be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; nor may they be held in slavery or servitude. Aliens have the full right to liberty and security of the person ….”

  19. 19.

    Ryszard Piotrowicz, “Human Security and Trafficking of Human Beings: the Myth and the Reality” in Alice Edwards and Carla Ferstman (eds.) Human Security and Non-Citizens: Law, Policy and International Affairs (Cambridge University Press 2010) 406.

  20. 20.

    Organized Crime Convention, Article 15 (1) “states may establish extra-territorial jurisdiction for domestic prosecution in lieu of extradition when the latter is denied on the ground of nationality”.

  21. 21.

    Organized Crime Convention 2000, Article 15(3).

  22. 22.

    Organized Crime Convention 2000, Article 15(2) States parties are further encouraged to establish jurisdiction on the basis of active and passive personality principles, namely when their nationals are perpetrators or victims of related offences; UNODC, Anti-Human Trafficking Manual for Criminal Justice Practitioners, Module 6: International Cooperation In Trafficking In Persons Cases (UNODC 2009).

  23. 23.

    Tom Obokata, ‘A Human Rights Framework to Address Trafficking of Human Beings’ (2006) 24 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, 3, pp. 379–404.

  24. 24.

    The agreed articulation of those rules is contained in the International Law Commission’s draft articles on responsibility of states for internationally wrongful acts with commentaries, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10); Malcolm Shaw, International Law (5th edition Cambridge University Press 2003) pp. 721–724; Dinah Shelton, ‘Private Violations, Public Wrongs and the Responsibilities of States’ (1989) 13 Fordham International Law Journal, p. 1.

  25. 25.

    OHCHR, Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking Commentary (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights 2010) 77.

  26. 26.

    Shelley Case Inglis, ‘Expanding International and National Protections Against Trafficking for Forced Labor Using a Human Rights Framework’ (2001) 7 Buffalo Human Rights Law Review, pp. 55–104.

  27. 27.

    OHCHR, Frequently Asked Questions on a Human Rights-Based Approach to Development Cooperation, 2006.

  28. 28.

    The Human Rights-Based Approach to Development Cooperation Towards a Common Understanding Among UN Agencies, United Nations Second Interagency Workshop on Implementing a Human Rights-Based Approach in the Context of UN Reform, May 5–7, 2003.

  29. 29.

    Tom Obokata, ‘A Human Rights Framework to Address Trafficking of Human Beings’ (2006) 24 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, 3 pp. 379–404.

  30. 30.

    United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner, (2014) Human Rights and Human Trafficking Fact Sheet No. 36 http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FS36_en.pdf (Accessed 10 May 2017).

  31. 31.

    Ibid.

  32. 32.

    Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation, para. 10.

  33. 33.

    Louis Henkin, International Law: Politics and Values (Martinous Nijhoff 1995).

  34. 34.

    Christian Reus-Smith, ‘Human Rights and the Social Constructing of Sovereignty’ (2001) 27 Review of Human Rights Studies, pp. 519–538.

  35. 35.

    See Louis Henkin, International Law: Politics and Values (Martinous Nijhoff 1995), p. 169.

  36. 36.

    Laura Kokko, ‘People for Sale? Three different approaches to Human Trafficking’ (2008) 6 Human Security Journal, pp. 46–55.

  37. 37.

    Rebecca Surtees, Other Forms of Trafficking in Minors: Articulating Victim Profiles and Conceptualizing Intervention (The NEXUS Institute to Combat Human Trafficking and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) 2005).

  38. 38.

    Rebecca Surtees, Alternative Forms of Trafficking Minors: Articulating Victim Profiles and Conceptualising Interventions (paper presented at the Childhoods Conference of the International Organization for Migration and the Nexus Institute for Combating Human Trafficking, June 29–July 3, 2005 in Oslo, Norway) 23.

  39. 39.

    Notion generated from speaking to respondents in Nigeria during doctoral fieldwork see. May Ikeora (2014) “Interstate Cooperation and Anti-Trafficking: Assessing the Existing Approaches between the United Kingdom and Nigeria” PhD thesis, University of Hull.

  40. 40.

    See Kokko ‘People for Sale?’ … p. 51.

  41. 41.

    Thanh-Dam Truong, Governance and Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa: Rethinking Best Practices in Migration Management (UNESCO 2008).

  42. 42.

    Jack Donnelly, ‘The Relative Universality of Human Rights’ (2007) 29 Human Rights Quarterly, Number 2, pp. 281–306.

  43. 43.

    Annie Bunting, ‘Theorizing Women’s Cultural Diversity in Feminist International Human Rights Strategies’ (1993) 20 Journal of Law and Society No. 1 pp. 6–22; see also J. Donnelly, ‘The Relative Universality of Human Rights’ …

  44. 44.

    Bunting, ‘Theorizing Women’s Cultural Diversity’ …

  45. 45.

    Report of the Regional Meeting for Asia of the World Conference on Human Rights (Bangkok, 29 Mar–2 Apr. 1993), at 3, A/Conf.157/ASRM/8—A/Conf.157/PC/59 7 (April 1993).

  46. 46.

    See Bunting, ‘Theorizing Women’s Cultural Diversity’ … 18.

  47. 47.

    Tom Cushman, “Human Rights” in Bryan S. Turner (ed.) The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology (Cambridge University Press 2006) 520.

  48. 48.

    Neil Stammers, ‘Social Movements and the Social Construction of Human Right’ (1999) 21 Human Rights Quarterly, No. 4 pp. 980–1008.

  49. 49.

    See Bunting, ‘Theorizing Women’s Cultural Diversity’ …

  50. 50.

    van den Anker, C. (2008) Cosmopolitanism and trafficking in human beings for forced labour. In: Letherby, G., Williams, K., Birch, P. and Cain, M. E., eds. (2008) Sex as crime? Cullompton: Willan, pp. 137–155.

  51. 51.

    Ibid.

  52. 52.

    Global Justice Principles include 1. respect for the rights of victims; 2. cosmopolitan impartiality (justice for all); 3. respect for the agency of victims; 4. commitment to long-term structural change in the global economy; 5. provision of support to develop viable alternative livelihoods. See Van den Anker, C. (2004) “Contemporary slavery, global justice, and globalization”, in C. van den Anker (ed.) The Political Economy of New Slavery (Basingstoke: Palgrave), pp. 15–36. See also van den Anker, C. (2008) Cosmopolitanism and trafficking in human beings for forced labour. In: Letherby, G., Williams, K., Birch, P. and Cain, M. E., eds. (2008) Sex as crime? Cullompton: Willan, pp. 137–155.

  53. 53.

    See Agustin M. Laura, ‘Forget Victimisation: Granting Agency to Migrants’ Development, 46.3, 30–36 (2003).

  54. 54.

    See Anderson Bridget, Nandita Sharma and Cynthia Wright, ‘Editorial: Why No Borders?’ (2011) 26 Refuge 5.

  55. 55.

    See Conny Rijken and Eefje de Volder, ‘The European Union’s Struggle to Realize A Human Rights-based Approach to Trafficking in Human Beings’ (2009) 25 Connecticut Journal of International Law pp. 49–80; see also Conny Rijken and Koster, Dagmar, A Human Rights Based Approach to Trafficking in Human Beings in Theory and Practice (May 2008). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1135108 or https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1135108 (Accessed 11May 2017); Anne Gallagher and Nicole Karlebach, Prosecution of Trafficking in Persons Cases: Integrating a Human Rights-Based Approach in the Administration of Criminal Justice, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Expert Meeting of the UN Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children, Ms. Joy Ngozi Ezeilo, 4th July, 2011, Geneva, Switzerland; see also Tom Obokata, ‘A Human Rights Framework to Address Trafficking of Human Beings’ (2006) 24 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, 3, 379–404; Anne Gallagher, ‘Human Rights and the New UN Protocols on Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling: A Preliminary Analysis’ (2001) 23 Human Rights Quarterly, No. 4, p. 975.

  56. 56.

    Peter Jones, “Human Rights and Diverse Cultures: Continuity or Discontinuity?” in Caney S and Jones P. (eds.) Human Rights and Global Diversity (Frank Cass 2001).

  57. 57.

    Blanka Hancilova and Petra Burcikova, “Anti-trafficking and Human Rights” in Christien van den Anker and Ilse van Liempt (eds.) Human Rights and Migration: Trafficking for Forced Labour (Palgrave Macmillan 2012); Mike Kaye, The Migration-Trafficking Nexus: Combating Trafficking Through the Protection of Migrants Human Rights (Anti-Slavery International 2003).

  58. 58.

    Catrin Evans and Pankaja Bhattarai, Trafficking in Nepal: Intervention Models—A Comparative Analysis of Anti-Trafficking Intervention Approaches in Nepal (The Asia Foundation & Population Council-Horizon project 2000).

  59. 59.

    Ibid.

  60. 60.

    Bridget Anderson and Julianne O’Connell Davidson, Is Trafficking in Human Beings Demand Driven? A Multi-Country Pilot Study (IOM Research Series No. 15 IOM 2003).

  61. 61.

    Boonpala, Panudda and June Kane, Trafficking of Children: The Problem and Responses Worldwide (ILO/IPEC 2001) 15.

  62. 62.

    See Blanka Hancilova and Petra Burcikova, ‘Anti-trafficking and Human Rights’ … p. 228.

  63. 63.

    UK Action Plan on Tackling Human Trafficking, (Home Office and Scottish Executive 2007) 7.

  64. 64.

    James Hathaway C., ‘The Human Rights Quagmire of Human Trafficking’ (2008) 49 Virginia Journal of International Law (1) pp. 1–59.

  65. 65.

    Maggie Ibrahim, ‘The securitization of migration: a racial discourse’ (2005) 43 International Migration No. 5 pp. 163–87, p. 172 cited in Blanka Hancilova and Petra Burcikova, ‘Anti-trafficking and Human Rights’ … p. 228; see also Emiliano Garcia Coso, “The EU Combat against Illegal Immigration” Miliano Garcia Coso, “The European Union Effort to combat illegal migration, smuggling and trafficking in Human Beings: impact on Spanish Law” in Shiro Okubo and Louise Shelley, Human security, Transnational Crime and Human Trafficking: Asian and Western Perspectives (Taylor and Francis 2013) 198.

  66. 66.

    ibidi Emiliano Garcia Coso, ‘The EU Combat against Illegal Immigration’ … p. 200.

  67. 67.

    See Blanka Hancilova and Petra Burcikova ‘Anti-trafficking and Human Rights’ … p. 228.

  68. 68.

    See Article 33 of the Geneva Convention.

  69. 69.

    Jonathan Todres, ‘Widening Our Lens: Incorporating Essential Perspectives in The Fight Against Human Trafficking’ (2011) 33 MICH. J. INT’L L. p. 67.

  70. 70.

    Human Rights Watch, ‘Chop Fine: The Human Rights Impact of Local Government Corruption and Mismanagement in Rivers State, Nigeria’ (2007) Volume 19, No. 2(A) p. 1.

  71. 71.

    Ibid. 2.

  72. 72.

    David A. ‘Feingold, Human Trafficking’ (2005) Foreign Policy, No. 150, 32.

  73. 73.

    Kevin Bales, Understanding Global Slavery: A Reader (University of California Press 2005).

  74. 74.

    NAPTIP, The Dynamics and Contexts of Trafficking in Persons: A National Perspective (NAPTIP undated).

  75. 75.

    Douglas S. Massey, Joaquin Arango, Graeme Hugo, Ali Kouaouci, Adela Pellegrino and J. Edward Taylor, ‘Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal’ (1993) 19 Population and Development Review No. 3, 434.

  76. 76.

    Trafficking Protocol 2000, article 3(a).

  77. 77.

    Anders Lisborg, Bodies across Borders: Prostitution Related Migration from Thailand to Denmark (Working Paper 139 Department of Geography Roskilde University Denmark 1998).

  78. 78.

    Sally Cameron and Edward Newman, Trafficking in Human$: social, cultural and political dimensions (United Nations University Press 2008) 22.

  79. 79.

    Interview with NAPTIP official in Abuja Nigeria [December 2011]; see also Victor Nnamdi Opara, “Trafficking Contracts: Myth or Reality?: Re-Examination of Consent in Human Trafficking” in Toyin Falola and Niyi Afolabi (eds.) The Human Cost of African Migrations (Routledge 2007).

  80. 80.

    Victims who were interviewed for this study never mentioned the word ‘trafficking’ as a description of their experiences.

  81. 81.

    Myriam Cherti, Jenny Pennington and Peter Grant, Beyond Borders, Human Trafficking from Nigeria to the United Kingdom (Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR) 2013).

  82. 82.

    See Blanka Hancilova and Petra Burcikova, ‘Anti-trafficking and Human Rights’ …

  83. 83.

    See above UK Action Plan on Tackling Human Trafficking, 2007.

  84. 84.

    Teresa Hayter, Open Borders: The Case Against Immigration Controls (2nd ed. Pluto Press 2004) 9.

  85. 85.

    See Douglas S. Massey et al., ‘Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal’ …

  86. 86.

    See Blanka Hancilova and Petra Burcikova, ‘Anti-trafficking and Human Rights’ …

  87. 87.

    P, Green and M. Grewcock,‘The War Against Illegal Immigration’ (2002) 14 Current Issues in Criminal Justice, No. 1 cited by Maggy Lee, Trafficking and Global Crime Control (SAGE Publications 2011) 35.

  88. 88.

    Ibid.

  89. 89.

    See Gary Craig et al., Contemporary slavery in the UK: Overview and key issue …

  90. 90.

    Lorena Arocha, The Wrong Kind of Victim: One Year On—An Analysis of UK measures to Protect Trafficked Persons (The Anti Trafficking Monitoring Group. Anti-Slavery International 2010).

  91. 91.

    Ibid.

  92. 92.

    Ibid.

  93. 93.

    Interview with an NGO official in London [June 2011].

  94. 94.

    Aderanti Adepoju, ‘Review of Research and Data on Human Trafficking in sub-Saharan Africa’ (2005) Vol. 43 International Migration (1/2) pp. 83–4.

  95. 95.

    Christiana Okojie, Obehi Okojie, Kokunre Eghafona, Gloria Vincent-Osaghae, and Victoria Kalu, Trafficking of Nigerian Girls to Italy: Report of field survey in Edo State, Nigeria (United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) 2003); For instance, the Edo State Criminal code in Nigeria Section 223 (b) makes it an offence for any female person to knowingly offer herself for the purpose of prostitution or to carry out any immoral act within or outside Nigeria punishable by two years imprisonment or a fine of N 20,000 ($154).

  96. 96.

    May-Len Skilbrei and Marianne Tveit, “Mission Impossible? Voluntary and Dignifie Repatriation of Nigerian Victims of Trafficking” in Thanh-Dam Truong, D. Gasper (eds.) Transnational Migration and Human Security: The Migration-Development-Security Nexus (Springer 2011) 141.

  97. 97.

    In reference to non-refoulement, States are bound not to transfer any individual to another country if this would result in exposing him or her to serious human rights violations. Specifically, the right to life is guaranteed under Article 6 of the ICCPR and, for example, Article 2 of the 1950 ECHR; Article 4 African Charter of Human Rights (ACHR); Article 4 of the African (Banjul) Charter on Human and People’s Rights.

  98. 98.

    Article 33 of the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees 1951, 189 United Nations Treaty Series 150, as revised by the Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1967. Article 33(1) of the 1951 Convention provides: “No Contracting State shall expel or return (“refouler”) a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his [or her] life or freedom would be threatened on account of his [or her] race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.”

  99. 99.

    Protection under the CAT and the ICCPR is not constrained by the exclusion clauses of the Refugee Convention but operates as a form of human rights protection premised on states. See Udara Jayasinghe and Sasha Baglay, ‘Protecting Victims of Human Trafficking Within a ‘Non-Refoulement’ Framework: is Complementary Protection an Effective Alternative in Canada and Australia?’ (2011) 23 International Journal for Refugee Law (3) pp. 489–520; see also Tom Obokata ‘A Human Rights Framework to Address Trafficking of Human Beings’ (2006) 24 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights No. 3, pp. 379–404.

  100. 100.

    See Bensaid vs United Kingdom, Application No. 44599/98, Judgment of 6 February 2001, para. 34. Cited in Obokata, ‘A Human Rights Framework’ … p. 392.

  101. 101.

    The case was filed on the grounds that the expulsion of a person to a state where he/she would be subjected to slavery or forced labour might raise issues under the obligation to prohibit torture. The applicant complains that his deportation to Mauritania would involve a violation of Article 3 of the Convention, which provision reads as follows: “No one shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.” See Mohammed Lemine Ould Barar v. Sweden, 42367/98, Council of Europe : European Court of Human Rights, 19 January 1999, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b6a88.html [Accessed 2 June 2013]; See also Obokata, ‘A Human Rights Framework’ … p. 392.

  102. 102.

    See UN High Commissioner for Refugees, The Principle of Non-Refoulement as a Norm of Customary International Law. Response to the Questions Posed to UNHCR by the Federal Constitutional Court of the Federal Republic of Germany in Cases 2 BvR 1954/93, 31 January 1994, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/437b6db64.html [Accessed 2 June 2013]; see also Anne Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking (Cambridge University Press 2010).

  103. 103.

    Council Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004.

  104. 104.

    See Jayasinghe and Sasha Baglay, ‘Protecting Victims of Human Trafficking Within’ (n 100) 518–19.

  105. 105.

    May-Len Skilbrei and Marianne Tveit, ‘Mission Impossible?’ … p. 144.

  106. 106.

    See ‘A Typology of Forced Labour’ in ILO Director-General, “A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour: Global Report under the Follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work 2005,” International Labour Conference, 93rd Session 2005 Report I (B).

  107. 107.

    Jeroen Beirnaert, “A Trade Union Perspective on Combating Trafficking and Forced Labour in Europe in Combating Trafficking” in Conny Rijken (ed.), Human Beings for Labour Exploitation, (Wolf Legal Publishers 2011) 471.

  108. 108.

    Klara Skrivankova, Between Decent Work and Forced Labour: Examining the Continuum of Exploitation (Joseph Rowntree Foundation Programme Paper 2010).

  109. 109.

    TUC EUIRD, Tackling trafficking through workers’ rights: TUC response to the January 2006 Home Office consultation (London 2006) http://www.tuc.org.uk/international/tuc-11911-f0.pdf

  110. 110.

    See Morehouse, Combating human trafficking … p. 81.

  111. 111.

    Anne Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking (Cambridge University Press 2010) 166.

  112. 112.

    Elizabeth M. Wheaton, Edward J. Schauer and Thomas V. Galli, ‘Economics of Human Trafficking’ (2010) 48 International Migration (4) pp. 114–141.

  113. 113.

    Bridget Anderson and Julia O’Connell Davidson, Trafficking—a demand led problem? A multi-country pilot study (Save the Children 2002).

  114. 114.

    Anti-Slavery International, Trafficking for Forced Labour in Europe: Report on a study in the UK, Ireland, the Czech Republic and Portugal (Anti-Slavery International 2006) 18.

  115. 115.

    See Beirnaert, ‘A Trade Union Perspective on Combating Trafficking’ … p. 478.

  116. 116.

    ILO, In search of Decent Work: Migrant workers’ rights: A manual for trade unionists (International Labour Office 2008).

  117. 117.

    See Beirnaert, ‘A Trade Union Perspective on Combating Trafficking’ … p. 478.

  118. 118.

    Cited in Bridget Anderson and Julia O’Connell Davidson, Trafficking—a demand led problem? A multi-country pilot study (Save the Children 2002).

  119. 119.

    UK industry faces increased demand for skilled workers—Food Production daily http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/Processing/UK-industry-faces-increased-demand-for-skilled-workers (Accessed 20 May 2012).

  120. 120.

    Cited in Anti-Slavery International, Trafficking for Forced Labour in Europe (n 115) 18.

  121. 121.

    See Beirnaert (n 105).

  122. 122.

    Directive 2009/52/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 June, 2009.

  123. 123.

    ETUC, PICUM, Solidar, Joint comments of ETUC, PICUM and Solidar on expected commission proposals to fight ‘illegal’ employment and exploitative working conditions (26 April 2007) http://www.etuc.org/a/4325 [Accessed 13 August 2013].

  124. 124.

    See Beirnaert (n 105) 479.

  125. 125.

    Conny Rijken (ed.) Human Beings for Labour Exploitation (Wolf Legal Publishers 2011).

  126. 126.

    OSCE Special Representative and Co-ordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Maria Grazia Giammarinaro, press statement on the occasion of International Day for Social Justice (20 February 2011) http://www.osce.org/cthb/75678 [Accessed 15 August 2013].

  127. 127.

    PICUM, Undocumented Migrants Have Rights: An Overview of the International Human Rights Framework (PICUM 2007).

  128. 128.

    Blanka Hancilova and Petra Burcikova, ‘Anti-trafficking and Human Rights’ p. 237.

  129. 129.

    Fiona David, ‘Labour Trafficking’ (2010) Australian Institute of Criminology, Research and Policy Series nr 108 Canberra, p. 13.

  130. 130.

    J. Lonnroth, The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrants Workers and Members of their Families in the Context of International Migration Policies: An Analysis of Ten Years of Negotiations (1991) International Migration Review No. 24 p. 721.

  131. 131.

    See Anne Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking … p. 170.

  132. 132.

    International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrants Workers and Members of their Families —article 16(2).

  133. 133.

    See Anne Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking … p. 170–1.

  134. 134.

    United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2220, p. 3; Doc. A/RES/45/158. http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?mtdsg_no=IV-13&chapter=4&lang=en [Accessed 15 July 2013].

  135. 135.

    See Anne Gallagher, International Law of Human Trafficking … p. 173.

  136. 136.

    Ibid.

  137. 137.

    Ibid. 176.

  138. 138.

    Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 2; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, articles 2 (1) and 26; Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 2; Migrant Workers Convention, article 7; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, article 2 (2); Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, article 6; European Convention on Human Rights, article 14; American Convention on Human Rights, article 1 (includes “economic status”); African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, article 2 (includes “fortune”). Non-treaty source: Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, article 1.

  139. 139.

    Inter-American Court of Human Rights in 2003 on Legal Status and Rights of Undocumented Migrants, at para 119 cited in Anne Gallagher, International Law of human Trafficking … p. 176.

  140. 140.

    Cited in Anne Gallagher, International Law of human Trafficking … p. 177.

  141. 141.

    ECPAT, Child Trafficking and Private Fostering (ECPAT 2011); see also The Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (CEOP) report Strategic Threat Assessment—Child Trafficking in the UK (CEOP 2010).

  142. 142.

    BBC News—Pastor jailed for trafficking African child ‘slaves’—18th March 2011 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-12789690 [Accessed 25 May 2012].

  143. 143.

    ILO, World of work magazine No. 22, December 1997: Fighting child labour from dream to reality (International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland).

  144. 144.

    This type of fostering is largely a consequence of the need to relocate resources within the extended family or the Kin group, ensuring maximum survival for the unit and strengthening of kinship ties. See A. Okore, “The Ibos of Arochukwu in Imo State, Nigeria” in Caldwell, J.C. (ed.) The Persistence of High Fertility, (Vol. 1, The Australian National University Press 1977).

  145. 145.

    This occurs in the case of dissolution of the family of origin by divorced, separation or death of a spouse. See R.A. Okunola and A.D. Ikuomola ‘Child Labour in Fostering Practices: A Study of Surulere Local Government Area Lagos State, Nigeria’ (2010) 5 The Social Sciences, Issue: 6, 493–506; see also Isiugo-Abanihe, U.C., Child fostering in West Africa: Prevalence, determinants and demographic consequences (Ph.D. Thesis University of Pennsylvania 1983).

  146. 146.

    Alliance fostering and ward ship often combine the responsibilities of training and sponsoring of young children, they go hand in hand with apprentice fostering. Children may be sent away at a very early age to homes where they are disciplined or where they learn a trade. See John Sinclair, ‘Educational Assistance, Kinship and the Social Structure in Sierra Leone’ (1976) Afr. Res. Bull., 2: 30–62; see also Esther Goody, “Delegation of Parental Roles in West Africa and West Indies” in Williams, T.R. (ed.) Socialization and Communication in Primary Groups (Mouton 1975) 125–158.

  147. 147.

    Children are boarded out with relatives who are expected to provide formal education to the younger ones in return for having themselves received educational assistance. The children may also be sent to non-relatives in cases where few relatives live closer to school.

  148. 148.

    R.A. Okunola and A.D. Ikuomola, ‘Child Labour in Fostering Practices: A Study of Surulere Local Government Area Lagos State, Nigeria’ (2010) 5 The Social Sciences (6) pp. 493–506.

  149. 149.

    Ibid.

  150. 150.

    Kari Hauge Riisoen, Anne Hatloy and Lise Bjerkan, Travel to Uncertainty, A study of child relocation in Burkina Faso, Ghana and Mali (FAFO Centre for Applied Research 2004).

  151. 151.

    Michael D. A. Freeman, The Moral Status of Children: Essays on the Rights of the Child (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1997) 8.

  152. 152.

    Martin Woodhead and Heather Montgomery (eds.) Understanding Childhood An Interdisciplinary approach (Open University 2003).

  153. 153.

    See R.A. Okunola and A.D. Ikuomola ‘Child Labour in Fostering Practices …

  154. 154.

    Anne McGullivary ‘Why Children do have equal rights: In reply to Laura Purdy’ (1994) 2 International Journal of Children’s Rights pp. 243–258.

  155. 155.

    See Morehouse, Combating human trafficking … p. 88.

  156. 156.

    Jeffery P. Dennis, ‘Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade’ (2008) 25 Gender, pp. 11–25.

  157. 157.

    Samuel Vincent Jones ‘the invisible man: the conscious neglect of men and boys in the war on human trafficking’ (2010) Utah Law Review, No 4, pp. 1143–1188.

  158. 158.

    Ibid.

  159. 159.

    Kara Abramson, ‘Beyond Consent, toward Safeguarding Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations Trafficking Protocol’ (2003) 44 Harv. Int’l L.J. p. 479.

  160. 160.

    See Samuel Vincent Jones ‘the invisible man: 1180; see also Matthew C. Gutmann, ‘Trafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity’ (1997) 26 Annual Review of Anthropology, pp. 385–409.

  161. 161.

    See Samuel Vincent Jones ‘the invisible man …

  162. 162.

    Glenn Miles & Heather Blanch, What about boys? An initial exploration of sexually exploited boys in Cambodia , Third Annual Interdisciplinary Conference on Human Trafficking, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, 2011. Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/humtraffconf3 [Accessed 5 July 2013].

  163. 163.

    Ibid.

  164. 164.

    See Kara Abramson, ‘Beyond Consent, toward Safeguarding Human Rights …

  165. 165.

    Ibid.

  166. 166.

    Dorchen Leidholdt, ‘Prostitution: A Violation of Women’s Human Rights’ (1993) I Cardozo Women’s L.J. 133, 1336 cited in Abramson, ‘Beyond Consent’ … p. 489.

  167. 167.

    See Abramson, ‘Beyond Consent’ … p. 478.

  168. 168.

    See Morehouse, Combating human trafficking … p. 88.

  169. 169.

    Blanka Hancilova and Petra Burcikova, ‘Anti-trafficking and Human Rights’ … p. 232.

  170. 170.

    Ibid., 233.

  171. 171.

    S. FitzGerald, “Putting Trafficking on the Map: The Geography of Feminist Complicity” in M. Della Giusta and V. Mounro (eds) Demanding Sex: Critical Reflections on the Regulation of Prostitution (Ashgate 2008) 99–120.

  172. 172.

    Cameron and Newman, Trafficking in Human$ … p. 16.

  173. 173.

    See Blanka Hancilova and Petra Burcikova, ‘Anti-trafficking and Human Rights’ … p. 233.

  174. 174.

    ILO, A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour, Report of the Director-General, 93rd Session, Report I (B) (ILO 2005) para. 24.

  175. 175.

    Blanka Hancilova and Petra Burcikova, ‘Anti-trafficking and Human Rights’ … p. 234.

  176. 176.

    Morehouse, Combating human trafficking … p. 89.

  177. 177.

    Bridget Anderson, Motherhood, Apple Pie: and Slavery: Reflections on Trafficking Debates (Centre on Migration, Policy and Society Working Paper No. 48, 2007) 7.

  178. 178.

    Magaret Jane Radin, Contested Commodities: The Trouble with Trade in Sex, Children, Body Parts, and other Things (Harvard University Press 1996) 51 cited by Bridget Anderson, Motherhood, Apple Pie: and Slavery: Reflections on Trafficking Debates (Centre on Migration, Policy and Society Working Paper No. 48, 2007).

  179. 179.

    Laura Agustin, Sex at the Margins: Migration, Labour Markets and the Rescue Industry (Zeb Books 2007).

  180. 180.

    Ibid., 7.

  181. 181.

    Ibid.

  182. 182.

    Joe Doezema, ‘Loose Women or Lost Women? The Re-Emergence of the Myth of White Slavery in Contemporary Discourses of Trafficking in Women’ (2000) 18 Gender Issues (1) 23–50.

  183. 183.

    Ibid.

  184. 184.

    Anderson, ‘Motherhood, Apple Pie’ … p. 10.

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Ikeora, M. (2018). Conceptualising Anti-Trafficking and Protecting People. In: Bilateral Cooperation and Human Trafficking . Global Ethics. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62825-7_2

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