Abstract
Several national and international initiatives and responses to promote and protect cultural heritage have emerged in the wake of the revolutionary movements—or the so-called Arab Spring—in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) that turned into armed conflicts in Libya, Syria, Yemen, and Iraq. The destruction of cultural heritage differs in form and extent between regions and countries. A steady stream of photos and articles have been produced to document the damage, highlighting the cultural history and significance of specific areas, buildings and monuments (e.g. Ali, 2013; Brodie, 2015; Casana, 2015; Casana & Panahipour, 2014; Cunliffe, 2012, 2014; Danti, 2015; Fisk, 2008; Kila, 2013; Newson & Young, 2017; Stone, 2013, 2015). Efforts have also been made to encourage the preservation and conservation of endangered cultural heritage sites in an attempt to strengthen and maintain the identity and memory of those sites among local people (Al Quntar, 2013; Al Quntar, Hanson, Daniels, & Wegener, 2015; Munawar, 2017a). It has been argued that these initiatives to safeguard heritage in the midst of conflict are new forms of colonialism and have already been reinforced by over a century of Western archaeological excavations that have deepened imperialist agendas in the Middle East. The ruination and devastation that have occurred—and are still occurring—in Syria and Iraq have drawn attention to many studies that are concerned with the preservation and conservation of damaged cultural heritage. This chapter focuses on the initiatives of the world community that are concerned with the destruction of cultural heritage in Syria and Iraq in an effort to clarify the forms of intervention (i.e. workshops, training, press releases, petitions, lectures, etc.), their temporal duration (i.e. short, mid, long term), timing (i.e. dates of establishment and implementation, etc.), and physical location (i.e. locally, nationally, regionally, and internationally). The chapter goes on to analyze to what extent the world community’s efforts have succeeded in safeguarding cultural heritage sites from damage or destruction and how research projects have overlapped in their approaches. To conclude, it demonstrates how social media platforms, such as Facebook, Blogs, YouTube, and so forth, have been utilized to preserve cultural heritage.
Keywords
- Middle East And North Africa (MENA)
- Cultural Heritage Safeguard
- International Council On Monuments And Sites (ICOMOS)
- United Nations Educational, Scientific And Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
- International Council Of Museums (ICOM)
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
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Ibid., 6.
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See An urgent and firm response to the destruction of heritage in Syria and Iraq, retrieved from http://www.iccrom.org/an-urgent-and-firm-response-to-the-destruction-of-heritage-in-syria-and-iraq/ (accessed on 8 May 2017); see ICCROM Deplores the Continued Destruction of Ancient Heritage, retrieved from http://www.iccrom.org/iccrom-deplores-the-continued-destruction-of-ancient-heritage/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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For further discussion, see the English version of ICOM’s Emergency Red List of Syrian Cultural Objects at Risk, retrieved from http://icom.museum/fileadmin/user_upload/images/Redlists/Syria/ERL_SYRIE_EN.pdf (accessed on 8 May 2017); see ICOM launches the Emergency Red List of Syrian Cultural Objects at Risk at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, retrieved from http://icom.museum/news/news/article/icom-launches-the-emergency-red-list-of-syrian-cultural-objects-at-risk-at-the-metropolitan-museum-o/L/0/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See the English version of Emergency Red List of Iraqi Antiquities at Risk 2003, retrieved from http://icom.museum/fileadmin/user_upload/images/Redlists/Iraq/RedList_Irak_English.pdf (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See Emergency Red List of Iraqi Antiquities at Risk 2003, retrieved from http://icom.museum/resources/red-lists-database/red-list/iraq/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See The Emergency Red List of Iraqi Antiquities at Risk – Version 2015, retrieved from http://icom.museum/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/Press_Releases/Red_List_Iraq_EN_2015.pdf (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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Prince Claus Fund (PCF), founded in Amsterdam, the Netherlands in 1996, is an organization dedicated to culture and development. It promotes safeguard cultural heritage worldwide through their program the Cultural Emergency Response (CER). See Prince Claus Fund (PCF), retrieved from http://princeclausfund.org/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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Global Heritage Fund (GHF), founded in 2002, is an international non-profit organization (IGO), concerned about promoting the protection of Syria’s cultural heritage. See Global Heritage Fund (GHF), retrieved from http://globalheritagefund.org/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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CyArk is a non-profit organization that utilize the new technologies to create a free, 3D online library of the world’s cultural heritage sites before destruction. See CyArk website, retrieved from http://www.cyark.org/about/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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For further discussion, see Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2199 (2015), Security Council Condemns Trade with Al-Qaida Associated Groups, Threatens Further Targeted Sanctions, retrieved from http://www.un.org/press/en/2015/sc11775.doc.htm (accessed on 8 May 2017); and see United Nations Security Council Resolution 2199 (February 2015), retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002432/243249e.pdf (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See Introducing UNESCO, retrieved from http://en.unesco.org/about-us/introducing-unesco (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See The Observatory of Syrian Cultural Heritage, retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/syrian-observatory/about-us (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See DGAM, retrieved from http://dgam.gov.sy/(accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See The United Nations Institute for Training and Research UNITAR-UNOSAT, retrieved from http://www.unitar.org/unosat/maps (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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The Blue Shield is an international cultural network similar to the Red Cross. It promotes the protection of cultural heritage worldwide within the framework of the 1954 Hague Convention. Blue Shield International consists of the International Committee of the Blue Shield (ICBS) and the Association of National Committees of the Blue Shield (ANCBS). They have issued several press releases and statements calling for the protection of Syria’s and Iraq’s cultural heritage. For further discussion, see Blue Shield International, retrieved from http://www.ancbs.org/cms/en/about-us/what-we-do (accessed on 8 May 2017), see Iraq Statements, retrieved from http://www.ancbs.org/cms/en/press-room/archives/iraq (accessed on 8 May 2017), and see Syria Statements, retrieved from http://www.ancbs.org/cms/index.php/en/press-room/archives/syria (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See ASOR’s Weekly Reports, retrieved from http://www.asor-syrianheritage.org/weekly-reports/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See ASOR’s Special Reports, retrieved from http://www.asor-syrianheritage.org/special-reports/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See The Cultural Heritage Monitor, retrieved from http://www.asor-syrianheritage.org/about-the-cultural-heritage-monitor/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See History of Cultural Heritage without Borders (CHWB), retrieved from http://chwb.org/others/about-us/history/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See Heritage for Peace: Who We Are, retrieved from http://www.heritageforpeace.org/about-us/who-we-are/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See Heritage for Peace: Our Projects, retrieved from http://www.heritageforpeace.org/about-us/our-projects/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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For further discussion, see International Conference: Heritage and Conflict programme, retrieved from http://www.heritageforpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Pamflet-ProgramHeritageandConflict_lismallpdf.com_.pdf (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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- 74.
For further discussion, see SHIRIN Concrete Measures, retrieved from http://shirin-international.org/?page_id=795 (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 75.
RASHID is an international group of academics, professionals, and individuals engaged in the cultural heritage of Iraq. See http://www.protectingthepast.com/PtP/roger-matthews-rashid-international-formulating-a-future-for-iraqs-past/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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- 80.
See Division of Antiquities of the Free Council of Aleppo, retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/Department.Archaeology/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 81.
See The Protection of the Great Umayyad Mosque in Aleppo project, retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/Department.Archaeology/photos/?tab=album&album_id=542308499175809 (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See The Directorate of Antiquities, Museums, and Heritage workshop, retrieved from http://syriamocfa.org/?p=2842 (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See The Association for the Protection of Syrian Archaeology (APSA), retrieved from http://apsa2011.com/apsanew/about-us/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See Archaeology in Syria, retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/Archaeology.in.Syria/?fref=ts (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See Archaeology in Iraq, retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/Archaeology.in.Iraq.AiS/?fref=ts (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See Archaeology in Libya, retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/Archaeology.in.Libya.AiS/?fref=ts (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See Archaeology in Yemen, retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/Archaeology.in.Yemen.AiS/?fref=ts (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See The Center for Conflict, Negotiation and Recovery (CCNR), retrieved from https://ccnr.ceu.edu (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See The Aleppo Project website, retrieved from http://www.thealeppoproject.com/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See The Aleppo project Survey, retrieved from https://ccnr.ceu.edu/content/views-professionals-and-experts-about-reconstruction (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See The Aleppo Project Questionnaire, retrieved from https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeZajRgEMw9diLBmrUm5-MdiSMT-eWtCtPydyXyROT-ofjwIA/viewform (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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See Syrien – eine bedrohte Kulturlandschaft lecture series, retrieved from https://www.dainst.org/termin/-/event-display/ogNX4Gtxkd87/103681 (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 96.
See The Syrian Heritage Archive Website, retrieved from http://syrian-heritage.org/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 97.
See The Syrian Heritage Archive Project, retrieved from https://arachne.dainst.org/project/syrher?lang=de (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 98.
See EAMENA, retrieved from http://www.arch.ox.ac.uk/ea.html (accessed on 8 May 2017); and see EAMENA, retrieved from http://eamena.arch.ox.ac.uk/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 99.
See MEDMAK, retrieved from http://www.medmak.org/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 100.
See ‘The Syrian Tangible Cultural Heritage between 2011–2015’, retrieved from http://www.medmak.org/med_report/Medmak-report-2011-2015.pdf (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 101.
See The Monuments of Mosul in Danger project, retrieved from http://monumentsofmosul.com/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 102.
See The Penn Cultural Heritage Center (PennCHC), retrieved from http://www.pennchc.org/page/what_is_pennchc (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 103.
The Smithsonian Institution, founded in 1846, is a global organization and part of one of the world’s largest museum, education, and research complexes. The Smithsonian Institution is actively involved in research and conservation of natural and cultural heritage. See The Smithsonian Global, retrieved from https://global.si.edu (accessed on 8 May 2017); and see The Smithsonian, retrieved from http://www.si.edu/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 104.
The Day After Association, founded in 2012, is an independent organization that works to support a post-Assad democratic transition in Syria. See The Day After Association (TDA), retrieved from http://tda-sy.org/en/ (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 105.
The US Institute of Peace, founded in 1984, was established as a national institution to “serve the American people and the federal government through the widest possible range of education and training, basic and applied research opportunities, and peace information services on the means to promote international peace and the resolution of conflicts among the nations and peoples of the world without recourse to violence.” See History of the Institute of Peace, retrieved from http://www.usip.org/about-us/our-history (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 106.
See Safeguarding Cultural Heritage in Syria and Iraq (SHOSI), retrieved from https://global.si.edu/success-stories/safeguarding-cultural-heritage-syria-and-iraq (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 107.
Rekrei means “to recreate” in Esperanto.
- 108.
See Rekrei (Project Mosul), retrieved from https://projectmosul.org/about (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 109.
See Introducing ‘RecoVR Mosul’, The Economist’s first VR experience, retrieved from http://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2016/05/virtual-reality (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 110.
See The Lion of Mosul, retrieved from https://sketchfab.com/models/55ea0aed9bfd462593f006ea8c4aade0?utm_source=oembed&utm_medium=embed&utm_campaign=55ea0aed9bfd462593f006ea8c4aade0 (accessed on 8 May 2017).
- 111.
See The Palmyra Tower Tomb, retrieved from https://sketchfab.com/models/19c35bdacfad4734abdbf9464423cb91 (accessed on 8 May 2017).
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Munawar, N.A. (2019). Cultural Heritage and the Arab Spring: A Review of (Inter)National Efforts to Safeguard Heritage Under Fire. In: Çakmak, C., Özçelik, A.O. (eds) The World Community and the Arab Spring. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60985-0_5
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