Abstract
High blood pressure is a major risk factor for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, and a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. There is strong evidence from epidemiological and experimental studies that hypertensive-disorders can have their origins in early life, with proposed risk factors including altered fetal growth and aspects of maternal, fetal and infant nutrition. Experimental studies have demonstrated numerous mechanistic actions through which omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may improve vascular and cardiac health, and clinical trials of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in adults demonstrate blood pressure lowering. Omega-3 fatty acids cross the placental barrier readily, and as such it has been proposed that maternal intake of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may have similar haemodynamic effects in the offspring, and may program long term haemodynamic benefits. Such proposed improvements in haemodynamic profile may be more pronounced in children at higher risk of hypertensive-disorders due to other adverse early life risk factors or exposures. These hypotheses are supported by some observational and animal data, although high quality evidence from clinical trials is lacking.
Keywords
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsAbbreviations
- ALA:
-
Alpha-linolenic acid
- BP:
-
Blood pressure
- DBP:
-
Diastolic blood pressure
- DHA:
-
Docosahexaenoic acid
- EPA:
-
Eicosapentaenoic acid
- GA:
-
Gestational age
- LCPUFA:
-
Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids
- MAP:
-
Mean arterial pressure
- n-3 PUFA:
-
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
- n-6:
-
Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids
- SBP:
-
Systolic blood pressure
References
World Health Organization. A global brief on hypertension: silent killer, global public health crisis: World Health Day 2013.
Franco V, Oparil S, Carretero OA. Hypertensive therapy: part II. Circulation. 2004;109(25):3081–8.
Dampney RA, Horiuchi J. Functional organisation of central cardiovascular pathways: studies using c-fos gene expression. Prog Neurobiol. 2003;71(5):359–84.
Vehaskari VM, Aviles DH, Manning J. Prenatal programming of adult hypertension in the rat. Kidney Int. 2001;59(1):238–45.
Nuyt AM. Mechanisms underlying developmental programming of elevated blood pressure and vascular dysfunction: evidence from human studies and experimental animal models. Clin Sci. 2008;114(1):1–17.
IJzerman RG, Stehouwer CD, de Geus EJ, et al. Low birth weight is associated with increased sympathetic activity: dependence on genetic factors. Circulation. 2003;108(5):566–71.
Mathewson KJ, Van Lieshout RJ, Saigal S, Boyle MH, Schmidt LA. Reduced respiratory sinus arrhythmia in adults born at extremely low birth weight: evidence of premature parasympathetic decline? Int J Psychophysiol. 2014;93(2):198–203.
Rakow A, Katz-Salamon M, Ericson M, Edner A, Vanpee M. Decreased heart rate variability in children born with low birth weight. Pediatr Res. 2013;74(3):339–43.
Skilton MR, Pahkala K, Viikari JS, et al. The association of dietary alpha-linolenic acid with blood pressure and subclinical atherosclerosis in people born small for gestational age: the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project study. J Pediatr. 2015;166(5):1252–7. e1252.
Rudyk O, Makra P, Jansen E, et al. Increased cardiovascular reactivity to acute stress and salt-loading in adult male offspring of fat fed non-obese rats. PLoS One. 2011;6(10):e25250.
Appel LJ, Brands MW, Daniels SR, et al. Dietary approaches to prevent and treat hypertension: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Hypertension. 2006;47(2):296–308.
Arterburn LM, Hall EB, Oken H. Distribution, interconversion, and dose response of n-3 fatty acids in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83(6 Suppl):1467S–76S.
Bazan NG. Omega-3 fatty acids, pro-inflammatory signaling and neuroprotection. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2007;10(2):136–41.
Grundt H, Nilsen DW. n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Haematologica. 2008;93(6):807–12.
Simopoulos AP. Evolutionary aspects of diet, the omega-6/omega-3 ratio and genetic variation: nutritional implications for chronic diseases. Biomed Pharmacother. 2006;60(9):502–7.
Mozaffarian D, Wu JH. Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: effects on risk factors, molecular pathways, and clinical events. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58(20):2047–67.
O’Keefe JH, Abuissa H, Sastre A, Steinhaus DM, Harris WS. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on resting heart rate, heart rate recovery after exercise, and heart rate variability in men with healed myocardial infarctions and depressed ejection fractions. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97(8):1127–30.
De Caterina R, Liao JK, Libby P. Fatty acid modulation of endothelial activation. Am J C Nutr. Jan 2000;71(1 Suppl):213S–23S.
Mason PR, Jacob RF, Corbalan JJ, Malinski T. Combination eicosapentaenoic acid and statin treatment reversed endothelial dysfunction in HUVECs exposed to oxidized LDL. J Clin Lipidol. 2014;8(3):342–3.
Ishida T, Naoe S, Nakakuki M, Kawano H, Imada K. Eicosapentaenoic acid prevents saturated fatty acid-induced vascular endothelial dysfunction: involvement of long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2015;22(11):1172–85.
Fer M, Dreano Y, Lucas D, et al. Metabolism of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids by recombinant human cytochromes P450. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2008;471(2):116–25.
Wang RX, Chai Q, Lu T, Lee HC. Activation of vascular BK channels by docosahexaenoic acid is dependent on cytochrome P450 epoxygenase activity. Cardiovasc Res. 2011;90(2):344–52.
Arnold C, Markovic M, Blossey K, et al. Arachidonic acid-metabolizing cytochrome P450 enzymes are targets of {omega}-3 fatty acids. J Biol Chem. 2010;285(43):32720–33.
Barker DJ. Fetal origins of coronary heart disease. BMJ. 1995;311(6998):171–4.
Armitage JA, Pearce AD, Sinclair AJ, et al. Increased blood pressure later in life may be associated with perinatal n-3 fatty acid deficiency. Lipids. 2003;38(4):459–64.
Korotkova M, Gabrielsson BG, Holmäng A, et al. Gender-related long-term effects in adult rats by perinatal dietary ratio of n-6/n-3 fatty acids. Am J Phys Regul Integr Comp Phys. 2005;288(3):R575–9.
Weisinger HS, Armitage JA, Sinclair AJ, et al. Perinatal omega-3 fatty acid deficiency affects blood pressure later in life. Nat Med. 2001;7(3):258–9.
Hanebutt FL, Demmelmair H, Schiessl B, Larque E, Koletzko B. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) transfer across the placenta. Clin Nutr. 2008;27(5):685–93.
Vidakovic AJ, Gishti O, Steenweg-de Graaff J, et al. Higher maternal plasma n-3 PUFA and lower n-6 PUFA concentrations in pregnancy are associated with lower childhood systolic blood pressure. J Nutr. 2015;145(10):2362–8.
Vidakovic AJ, Gishti O, Voortman T, et al. Maternal plasma PUFA concentrations during pregnancy and childhood adiposity: the Generation R Study [published online ahead of print February 24, 2016]. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;103 (4):1017–25
Leary SD, Ness AR, Emmett PM, et al. Maternal diet in pregnancy and offspring blood pressure. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90(5):492–3.
Bryant J, Hanson M, Peebles C, et al. Higher oily fish consumption in late pregnancy is associated with reduced aortic stiffness in the child at age 9 years. Circ Res. 2015;116(7):1202–5.
Gustafson KM, Carlson SE, Colombo J, et al. Effects of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during pregnancy on fetal heart rate and variability: a randomized clinical trial. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2013;88(5):331–8.
Rytter D, Christensen JH, Bech BH, et al. The effect of maternal fish oil supplementation during the last trimester of pregnancy on blood pressure, heart rate and heart rate variability in the 19-year-old offspring. Br J Nutr. 2012;108(8):1475–83.
Rytter D, Bech BH, Halldorsson T, et al. No association between the intake of marine n-3 PUFA during the second trimester of pregnancy and factors associated with cardiometabolic risk in the 20-year-old offspring. Br J Nutr. 2013;110(11):2037–46.
Olofsson SO, Bostrom P, Andersson L, et al. Lipid droplets as dynamic organelles connecting storage and efflux of lipids. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009;1791(6):448–58.
Jensen CL, Prager TC, Zou Y, et al. Effects of maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation on visual function and growth of breast-fed term infants. Lipids. 1999;34(Suppl):S225.
Montgomery C, Speake BK, Cameron A, Sattar N, Weaver LT. Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and fetal accretion. Br J Nutr. Jul 2003;90(1):135–45.
Arenz S, Ruckerl R, Koletzko B, von Kries R. Breast-feeding and childhood obesity – a systematic review. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004;28(10):1247–56.
Cunnane SC, Francescutti V, Brenna JT, Crawford MA. Breast-fed infants achieve a higher rate of brain and whole body docosahexaenoate accumulation than formula-fed infants not consuming dietary docosahexaenoate. Lipids. 2000;35(1):105–11.
Wilson AC, Forsyth JS, Greene SA, et al. Relation of infant diet to childhood health: seven year follow up of cohort of children in Dundee infant feeding study. BMJ. 1998;316(7124):21–5.
Taittonen L, Nuutinen M, Turtinen J, Uhari M. Prenatal and postnatal factors in predicting later blood pressure among children: cardiovascular risk in young Finns. Pediatr Res. 1996;40(4):627–32.
Singhal A, Cole TJ, Lucas A. Early nutrition in preterm infants and later blood pressure: two cohorts after randomised trials. Lancet. 2001;357(9254):413–9.
Pivik RT, Dykman RA, Jing H, Gilchrist JM, Badger TM. Early infant diet and the omega 3 fatty acid DHA: effects on resting cardiovascular activity and behavioral development during the first half-year of life. Dev Neuropsychol. 2009;34(2):139–58.
Larnkjaer A, Christensen JH, Michaelsen KF, Lauritzen L. Maternal fish oil supplementation during lactation does not affect blood pressure, pulse wave velocity, or heart rate variability in 2.5-y-old children. J Nutr. 2006;136(6):1539–44.
Forsyth JS, Willatts P, Agostoni C, et al. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infant formula and blood pressure in later childhood: follow up of a randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2003;326(7396):953.
Damsgaard CT, Schack-Nielsen L, Michaelsen KF, et al. Fish oil affects blood pressure and the plasma lipid profile in healthy Danish infants. J Nutr. 2006;136(1):94–9.
Greenberg JA, Bell SJ, Ausdal WV. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation during pregnancy. Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2008;1(4):162–9.
Skilton MR, Ayer JG, Harmer JA, et al. Impaired fetal growth and arterial wall thickening: a randomized trial of omega-3 supplementation. Pediatrics. 2012;129(3):e698–703.
Skilton MR, Phang M. From the alpha to the omega-3: breaking the link between impaired fetal growth and adult cardiovascular disease. Nutrition. 2016;32:725.
Funding Sources
MRS is supported by a National Heart Foundation of Australia Future Leader Fellowship (100419). HD is supported by an Australian Postgraduate Award (SC0042).
Conflicts of Interest
MRS and MP receive research support from Swisse Wellness Pty Ltd. in the form of investigational product supplies. HD has no conflict of interest to declare.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Dissanayake, H.U.W., Phang, M., Skilton, M.R. (2017). Maternal n-3 Fatty Acids and Blood Pressure in Children. In: Rajendram, R., Preedy, V., Patel, V. (eds) Diet, Nutrition, and Fetal Programming. Nutrition and Health. Humana Press, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60289-9_21
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60289-9_21
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-60287-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-60289-9
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)