Abstract
Here we analyse the historical context which permitted the successful development of Herschel, from the discovery of IR radiation through the development of detection techniques, in particular bolometric detectors. We demonstrate how the European space astronomy community was able to reach maturity, how influential was the role of the IRAS mission and how infrared astronomy was able to slowly find its way to the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO). We emphasise the crucial role of the ESA Horizon 2000 long-term plan in allowing the development of FIRST (subsequently renamed Herschel) as early as 1985. The long-term plan and vision constituted a framework driven by a commitment to achieving scientific excellence, and by schedule and financial respect, in adherence to the original figures. Despite serious difficulties met by the ESA scientific programme during its development, due to budgetary constraints and launchers accidents affecting several missions of the plan, Herschel emerged as a major scientific success.
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Notes
- 1.
A black body is an idealised physical object that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation , regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. In thermal equilibrium, a black body radiates according to Planck’s law, with a particular dependence on wavelength and a total power output that only depends on the temperature of the object.
- 2.
Also known as the infrared image tube, the image converter converts an invisible infrared image into a visible one. It consists of an infrared-sensitive, semitransparent photocathode on one end of an evacuated envelope and a phosphor screen on the other, with an electrostatic lens system between the two.
- 3.
The bolometer, invented in 1878 by Samuel P. Langley, was initially essentially a very sensitive thermometer made of a thin, blackened strip of platinum metal. Heat radiation falling on the strip changed its electrical resistance, which was recorded by a sensitive electric metre. Subsequently, this basic idea was developed into extremely sensitive bolometric detectors (see Chap. 7).
- 4.
- 5.
ASSESS (Wegmann et al. 1978), a joint exercise of NASA and ESA, was set up to enable scientists to become accustomed to an atmosphere-free, gravity-free working environment. This simulation of Spacelab conditions provided new data and a valuable insight into the possibilities and limitations of such a mission.
- 6.
Reimar Lüst was already a well-respected and famous plasma physicist and space scientist who later became the President of the Max Planck Society and Director General of ESA from 1984 to 1990. Johannes Geiss, also a space scientist, became well known in the course of the Apollo Programme when he proposed to measure the chemical composition of the Solar Wind with an instrument that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin deployed on the Moon just after their historic Apollo 11 landing.
- 7.
The TD satellites were so-called because they were launched with the US Thor-Delta rocket, which had capabilities that did not yet exist in Europe.
- 8.
France went as far as proposing to eliminate science from the new organisation, arguing that scientists could also fly their experiments on national and US satellites.
- 9.
The Accounting Unit (AU) was an internal financial measure established by ESRO , within which all financial transactions were recorded AU. The value of an AU was equivalent to that of the average value of the European Currency Unit (ECU) for the month of June of the preceding year, as determined by the Commission of the European Communities. In October 1995, the ESA Council determined that as of 1 January 1997, ESA should implement an ‘All ECU System’, and in 1997, the European Council fixed the conversion rate at one Euro for one ECU. As of 2000, ESA adopted the Euro for all its activities (credit: Eric Morel, ESA).
- 10.
By 1978, the totality of all European space projects, including the Member States and ESA, amounted to some 70 satellites with only 15 under ESA responsibility.
- 11.
British and Dutch scientists dominated the membership of the LIRTS Science Team, evidencing the prominent role of these two countries in infrared astronomy.
- 12.
Created in 1975 by the ESA first Director General, Roy Gibson, the SAC absorbed some competencies of the former LPAC of ESRO . In 1982, the terms of reference radically changed. It became SSAC, the Space Science Advisory Committee, and it was tasked with advising the Directorate of Science under the authority of Director General.
- 13.
Totaling 76 MAU in 1978 price levels.
- 14.
The Science Programme Committee, SPC, is a decision committee overlooking the mandatory scientific programme. One delegate, usually assisted by a science advisor, represents each participating member state. The SPC votes on all financial matters such as the approval of the budget of the science programme and decides the approval of new projects, as well as their continuation.
- 15.
Incidentally, the author of this paragraph!
- 16.
These included Giotto, Hipparcos, ISO and ESA’s participation to HST , and Ulysses.
- 17.
With the exception of the STSP Cornerstone regrouping SOHO and Cluster (totaling five satellites and representing the scientific interests of about 30% of the whole European Space Science Community), which was allocated a higher limit of 470 MAU .
- 18.
France was in favour of a more modest increase of 3–4%, possibly giving up one of the Cornerstones , a suggestion strongly opposed by the ESA Director and the Survey Committee Chairman, who pointed out that ‘the Cornerstones were already the outcome of a careful selection procedure ensuring a balance between the various scientific areas that would be jeopardized’ unless this balance was respected. The chairman of the SSAC added: If this minimum threshold was not reached, Europe would lapse back into ‘a posteriori’ planning, since the effect of removing one Cornerstone would be to break up the coherence of the plan and destroy all the others (Krige and Russo 2000).
- 19.
This is equivalent to 198.3 MAU at 1984 prices.
- 20.
The option looked attractive at first sight, but the drawbacks of having to refuel 6000 l of helium every year, and, knowing from the IRT experience on Spacelab 2 that the observing conditions on a manned platform in Low Earth Orbit are not optimum, forced the ESA Scientific Programme Directorate to reject it.
- 21.
The ESA Ulysses project team was already preparing for the launch of the Discovery Shuttle at NASA ’s Kennedy Space Center from where they witnessed live the Challenger tragedy.
- 22.
In fact, the HST ground software was not ready in 1986, and indeed was barely ready by the April 1990 launch.
- 23.
The capacity of Soyuz was not enough to launch the four satellites at once. Therefore two separate consecutive launches were necessary to launch all satellites of the Cluster mission.
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Minier, V. et al. (2017). Creating the Historical and Strategic Framework for Herschel . In: Inventing a Space Mission. ISSI Scientific Report Series, vol 14. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60024-6_2
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