Abstract
Most of the world’s coastal areas have been shaped and transformed by tsunamis from prehistorical times with origins varying from cosmically related events to tectonic plate dynamics and atmospheric disturbances. The most devastating tsunamis involve large meteorite strikes, followed by massive submarine landslides and volcanic eruptions. However other comparatively devastating tsunamis have originated from earthquakes, surface landslides and seafloor displacement. Since 1960, four major tsunami events can be considered to be the most relevant as a result of their size and associated destruction: two events off the coast of Chile, one in the Pacific and Indian Oceans that reached many countries along its path, and the March 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami. The latter badly damaged infrastructure, the social milieu, local communities and cities, industries and the environment of Japan’s northeastern coast, prompting the government to engage in an intense 10-year restoration and reconstruction process. The environment vastly suffered the impact, which was reflected in important biodiversity alterations as well as in the presence, abundance and distribution of various coastal ecosystems and biological species. Apart from the ongoing natural restoration process, Japan’s government has also decided to support and enhance the process that has developed and has enacted important statutes and statutory frameworks for this purpose, including the 2012–2020 National Biodiversity Strategy, which turns on certain fundamental components, such as the valuation of ecosystems services, and implementation of Environmental Impact Assessments and Environmental Strategic Assessments, among others. Controversial issues, including construction of sea fences (such as seawalls or coastal dikes), the potential damage to the coastal environment, effectiveness and costs of certain measures, among others, resulted from the established reconstruction policies and differences in perceptions between the government and local inhabitants throughout the reconstruction process. As result of intense interaction between the stakeholders and the government, many of the initial decisions regarding the characteristics of these structures have been revised, although their impact on the environment will certainly remain large and often unpredictable.
Although the present chapter is not intended to be a comprehensive analysis nor a compilation of information, it is intended to provide a brief overview regarding tsunamis, in terms of their origin and types, while giving some relevant examples of the most devastating tsunamis in historical terms and since 1960 to date as a result of their environmental impacts. A deeper analysis is made of the March 2011 event in Japan in which some examples are offered regarding the decimation and or alteration of the biodiversity and ecosystems in some of the affected coastlines. Moreover, this chapter highlights some efforts that Japan’s government has undertaken in the 5 years since March 2011 by developing and enacting relevant legal frameworks and related aspects. Finally, this chapter also addresses the contents of the discussion regarding construction of sea fences along the coastline in the Tohoku region (northeastern coast of Japan).
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Notes
- 1.
In the Conservation Strategy of Japan, Coastal water was defined as the “water from the intertidal zone to the continental shelf that is less than 200 m in depth, which is subject to significant impacts by human activities”,
- 2.
The National Biodiversity Strategy of Japan 2012–2020 is the fifth one counting from the first National Biodiversity Strategy formulated based on the CBD, and the second strategy formulated based on the Basic Act on Biodiversity (MOE 2012b)
- 3.
“The benefits that mankind obtain from the services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocks that produce them are critical to the functioning of the Earth’s life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the total economic value of the planet.” Constanza et al. (1997)
- 4.
Use values: direct use value, indirect use value and option value; Non-use values; bequest value, altruist value and existence value (Unai and Muradin 2010).
- 5.
The OECD defines Natural Capital as “natural assets in their role of providing natural resource inputs and environmental services for economic production” comprising “three principal categories: natural resources stocks, land, and ecosystems.”
- 6.
Biomes are large regions in the planet holding a large-scale community of organisms shaped by common environmental conditions (which in turn comprises a variety of ecosystems).
- 7.
Values for each service per biome (values in Int.$/ha/year, 2007 price levels)
- 8.
Approximately 1 billion USD dollar the time (note by the authors).
- 9.
Article 2 of the Law states: “environmental impact assessment” shall mean the process of (a) surveying, predicting, and assessing the likely impact that a project (hereinafter meaning changes in the shape of the terrain [including dredging being conducted simultaneously], and the establishing, modifying, and expanding of a structure for specific purposes), will have on various aspects of the environment (if the purpose of the project includes business activities and other human activities on the project land or within a project structure after the implementation of a project, the impact of such activities is included) (hereinafter referred to simply as “environmental impact”); (b) studying possible environmental protection measures relating to the project; and (c) assessing the likely overall environmental impact of such measures” (MOE (2013)).
- 10.
“The projects subject to the Environmental Impact Assessment Law are projects to be approved, authorized, subsidized or conducted by the national government. In other words, the government can decide whether the projects will be implemented or not. The Environmental Impact Assessment Law includes provision not to give authorization to projects that do not take enough environmental protection into account”. (Environmental Policy Bureau 2012)
- 11.
Accidental incidents are those in which there is danger of serious impact on life, property and socioeconomic activity accompanying damage of the objective facilities; they include breakwaters, revetments, seawalls, water gates and levees. Protecting facilities for harbors protect waterways and basins such as breakwaters, seawalls, sediment control groins, water gates and revetments amongst many others.
- 12.
TP Tokyo Pale. “The standard sea level “T.P.” is the mean sea level deviation on the coast of the Japan Sea, the west coast of Kyushu, the coast of Sanriku and the coast of Hokkaido, which differs from others in Japan (Nakano and Yamada 1975)
- 13.
“The dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit”. UNEP-CBD (1993)
- 14.
“The place or type of site where an organism or population naturally occurs” UNEP-CBD (1993)
- 15.
Environmental Impact Assessment Division of the Ministry of the Environment of Japan.
- 16.
JICA (2013) published a Report on the reconstruction process and recovery with the lessons learned from past disasters in Japan while also including the March 2011 events.
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Acknowledgements
The visit to the tsunami stricken areas by the main author as well as the research period was made possible thanks to the support of a number of professionals and individuals. Special recognition is made to Masafumi Nakayama, President of Nakayama Warehousing Ltd. in Shiga Prefecture, andto M.A. and Ph.D. reader at Kyoto University N. Kimura who’s valuable insights and dedicated support during the field trip was crucial. The co-author would like to thank the International Research Institute of Disaster Science of Tohoku University for the kind support.
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Santiago-Fandiño, V., Mas, E. (2018). The Coastal Environment and the Reconstruction Process After the Great East Japan Earthquake: A Few Notes. In: Santiago-Fandiño, V., Sato, S., Maki, N., Iuchi, K. (eds) The 2011 Japan Earthquake and Tsunami: Reconstruction and Restoration. Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards Research, vol 47. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58691-5_18
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