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Textile Reorientations: The Manufacture and Trade of Cottons in Java c. 1600–1850

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Book cover Textile Trades, Consumer Cultures, and the Material Worlds of the Indian Ocean

Part of the book series: Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies ((IOWS))

Abstract

Past Western scholarship assumes that Java underwent ‘underdevelopment’ in the nineteenth century, the Dutch delivering the fatal blow against profitable local textile production with their purposeful marketing of inexpensive European industrial textiles. This chapter reveals how Java’s long-experienced cloth producers successfully outcompeted industrial imports through innovations, particularly labour-saving batik hand stamps that replaced free-hand ‘painting’. Port-based Chinese middlemen provided the stamps, dyes and imported industrial sheeting to household women, and successfully marketed their end-product batik fabrics. This transition further freed rural women from time-consuming weaving and hand-painting to cultivate cash crops. Renewed Javanese hand-stamped batik household production and intermediate quality batik cloth marketing equally revitalized the high-end batik hand craftsmanship of Java’s historical court workshops for elite (including resident Dutch colonialist) and international consumption.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Mattiebelle Gittinger, Splendid Symbols: Textiles and Traditions in Indonesia (Washington, DC. Textile Museum, 1979), pp. 28–30; Simon Kooijman, Ornamental Bark Cloth in Indonesia (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1963); Ruth Barnes and Mary Hunt Kahlenberg (eds), Five Centuries of Indonesian Textiles (Munich/New York: Demonico Books/Prestel Publishing, 2010); Fiona Kerlogue, The Book of Batik (Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2004).

  2. 2.

    Ruth Barnes, Ikat Textiles of Lamalera: A Study of an Eastern Indonesian Weaving Tradition (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989), pp. 31–32.

  3. 3.

    Gittinger, Splendid Symbols, p. 120. Here Gittinger cites two examples from Java, wherein men traditionally dyed the indigo blue colour. In contrast Barnes (Ikat Textiles, p. 16, pp. 31–32) relates that in response to her questioning she was assured that men or boys were not strictly prohibited from participating in dyeing, but that it was not “men’s work” (p. 31).

  4. 4.

    Gittinger, Splendid Symbols; Barnes, Ikat Textiles, and Barnes, “Early Indonesian Textiles: Scientific Dating in a Wider Context,” in Five Centuries of Indonesian Textiles, Ruth Barnes and Mary Hunt Kahlenberg (eds) (Munich/New York: Demonico Books/Prestel Publishing, 2010), pp. 34–44.

  5. 5.

    Rens Heringa, “Upland Tribe, Coastal Village, and Inland Court: Revised Parameters for Batik Research,” in Five Centuries of Indonesian Textiles, ed. Ruth Barnes and Mary Hunt Kahlenberg (Munich/New York: Demonico Books/Prestel Publishing, 2010), p. 121; Kenneth R. Hall, “The Textile Trade in Southeast Asia, 1400–1900,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 39, no. 2 (1996): pp. 87–135. This publication paired my research in nineteenth-century Indonesian archipelago Dutch sources with revisionist in-depth art history and anthropology studies focused on Indonesian textiles during my post-doctoral fellowships at New York University and The Hague, and the periodic mentorship of Ruth Barnes. This present chapter updates this previous work, as it represents advances in our knowledge and understanding of the textile production and trade in a wider Indian Ocean context.

  6. 6.

    Heringa, “Revised Parameters for Batik,” p. 121, reports that surviving batik textiles that had been produced using a canting tool date from around 1700. See photographs of this textile hand canting process in Kenneth R. Hall, “The Textile Trade in Southeast Asia, 1400–1900,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 39, no. 2 (1996): pp. 111–112.

  7. 7.

    Armando Cortesão, The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires (London: Hakluyt Society, 1944), pp. 269–272.

  8. 8.

    Prasannan Parthasarathi, “Cotton Textiles in the Indian Subcontinent, 1200–1800,” in The Spinning World, A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 1200–1850, ed. Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 17–41.

  9. 9.

    Kenneth R. Hall, “The 15th-Century Cloth Trade with Southeast Asia’s Indonesian Archipelago,” in Gujarat and the Sea, ed. Lotika Varadarajan (Vadodara, Gujarat: Darshak Itahas Nidhi, 2011), pp. 439–466; Beverly Lemire, “Revisiting the Historical Narrative, India, Europe, and the Cotton Trade, c. 1300–1800,” in The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 1200–1850, ed. Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 205–226; Pedro Machado, “Awash in a Sea of Cloth, Gujarat, Africa, and the Western Indian Ocean, 1300–1800,” in The Spinning World, A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 1200–1850, ed. Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 161–179.

  10. 10.

    Peter Boomgard and A. J. Gooszen, Changing Economy in Indonesia, II: Population Trends, 1795–1942 (Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 1991), pp. 7–82. As John Guy reports, in reference to early Gujarat block printed cloth traded to the East: “non-utilitarian uses of Indian textiles in Southeast Asia were important—as the volume of trade exceeded the consumptive needs of the region, as locally woven goods were available. Utility did not drive this commerce, but cultural values integral to the cotton textiles appealed to the wealthy and poor, and to male and female.” See John Guy, Woven Cargoes: Indian Textiles in the East (London: Thames and Hudson, 1998), p. 10.

  11. 11.

    Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, The History of Java, vol. I (London: Black, Parbury, and Allen and John Murray, reprinted Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 87–88; John Crawford, History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. I (Edinburgh: A. Constable and Co., 1820, reprinted London: Frank Cass, 1967), pp. 209–12; J. B. van Doren, De Javaan in het ware daglicht geschetsi, benevenens enige inlichtingen over het binnenlandsch bestuur op Java (Den Haag: Langenhuysen, 1851), pp. 9–11, summarized in Alfons van der Kraan, “Anglo-Dutch Rivalry in the Java Cotton Trade,” Indonesia Circle 68 (1996): p. 37.

  12. 12.

    Raffles, The History of Java I, 88–89; Crawford, History of the Indian Archipelago, I, pp. 209–212. Heringa (see “Revised Parameters,” pp. 127–128) differentiates between north coast (Tuban) and central Java court distinctions. Heringa asserts that Java textile hierarchy was based in landholding rights. In theory the central Java ruler was the owner of all the land, over ‘small people’ (wang cilik), while the eastern port states (paisir) recognized levels of family land ownership and its inheritance from father to son (p. 131, n. 31), as these familial land rights determined who could wear particular batik and other patterned cloth. See also Rens Heringa and Harman C. Veldhuisen, eds., Fabric of Enchantment, Batik from the North Coast of Java (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art/Weatherhill, 1996).

  13. 13.

    Raffles, The History of Java I, pp. 133–134; Crawford, History, I, pp. 440–444.

  14. 14.

    Raffles, The History of Java I, p. 86.

  15. 15.

    Raffles, The History of Java I, p. 167.

  16. 16.

    Raffles, The History of Java I, pp. 86–87.

  17. 17.

    Gerrit Pieter Rouffaer, De vaarnaamsie industrien der innlandsche bevolking van Java en Madoera (Den Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1904), pp. 7–8; Heringa, “Upland Tribe,” p. 123. Dodot was the adjoined highest quality hand woven ceremonial central Java batik. See the photograph of a traditional Java weaver and her loom in Hall, “Textile Trade,” p. 110.

  18. 18.

    Raffles, The History of Java I, p. 87, pp. 168–169; Heringa, “Revised Parameters,” pp. 125–128, reports three distinct batik techniques of Tuban, an Islamic sultanate port on Java’s northeast coast. One was a drop-by-drop application of wax on a horizontal base similar to the west Java kain simbu, which combined dots and short lines to portray complicated geometric patterns, and batik lurik, referenced in Old Javanese inscriptions dating to the ninth to fourteenth centuries, consisting of dotted patterns within a grid of dotted check. The clusters are said to depict traditional affiliations of networked villages, centred on a core village surrounded by four to eight hamlets in the cardinal directions (p. 127). See also Fiona Kerlogue, The Book of Batik (Singapore: Editions Didier Millet/Archipelago Press, 2004), pp. 19–21.

  19. 19.

    Willem Lodewycksz, “D’eerste Boek: historie van Indien vaer inne verhaelt is de avontueren die Hollandtsche schepen bejeghent zijn,” in De eerste schipvaart der Nederlanders naar Oost-Indie onder Cornelis de Houtman, 1595–1597, ed. Gerrit Pieter Rouffaer and J. W. Ijzerman, vol. I. (The Hague: Nijhoff for Linschoten-Vereeniging, 1915), pp. 139–156; Edmund Scott, “An exact discourse of the Subtilties, Fashions, Pollicies, Religion, and Ceremonies of the East Indians, as well Chyneses as Javans, there abyding and dweling (1606),” in The Voyage of Henry Middleton to the Moluccas, ed. Sir William Foster (London: Hakluyt Society, 1943), pp. 81–176. In contrast to this case study of Banten, see Heringa and Veldhuisen, Fabric of Enchantment, on the textile histories of Banten’s contemporary Java coast competitors.

  20. 20.

    Jeyamalar Kathirithamby-Wells, “Banten: A West Indonesian Port and Polity During the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” in The Southeast Asian Port and Polity, Rise and Demise, ed. Jeyamalar Kathirithamby-Wells and John Villiers (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1990), p. 111; Rouffaer and Ijzerman, De Eerste Schipvaart I, p. 83.

  21. 21.

    Claude Guillot, “Libre entreprise contre économie dirigée: guerres civiles à Banten, 1580-1609,” Archipel 43 (1992): pp. 57–72.

  22. 22.

    Edmund Scott, “The Description of Java Major, and the Manner and Fashions of the People, both Javans and Chineses, Which Doe There Inhabit,” in The Voyage of Henry Middleton to the Moluccas, ed. Sir William Foster (London: Hakluyt Society, 1943), p. 172, p. 193.

  23. 23.

    Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1677, 4.4, as discussed in M. A. P. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1962), p. 244.

  24. 24.

    Lucas Nagtegaal, “Rijden op een Hollandse Tijger: de noordkust van Java en de V.O.C., 1680-1743” (Ph.D. diss., University of Utrecht, 1988), p. 125.

  25. 25.

    Batavia High Governance to Gentlemen XVII, 5, March 1750, General Mission 1971, 11: p. 849. On comparative contemporary Sumatra cloth production see Barbara Watson Andaya, “The Cloth Trade in Jambi and Palembang during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” Indonesia 48 (1989): pp. 27–46.

  26. 26.

    Lucas Nagtegaal, Riding the Dutch Tiger: The Dutch East India Company and the Northeast Coast of Java, 1680–1743 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1996), pp. 147–148; Peter Boomgaard, “The Non-agricultural Side of an Agricultural Economy Java, 1500–1900,” in In the Shadow of Agriculture: Non-farm Activities in the Javanese Economy, Past and Present, ed. Paul Alexander, Peter Boomgaard and Ben White (Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 1991), pp. 20–25.

  27. 27.

    See Table 12, Nagtegaal, Riding the Dutch Tiger, p. 148.

  28. 28.

    Gentlemen XVII, 31 December 1683; General Mission 4: p. 621; Andaya, “Cloth Trade,” pp. 41–43. A similar point has been made recently by Kwee Hui Kian, “The End of the ‘Age of Commerce’? Javanese Cotton Trade Industry from the 17th to the 18th Centuries,” in Chinese Circulations: Capital, Commodities and Networks in Southeast Asia, ed. Eric Tagliocozzo and Wen-Chin Chang (Durham, Duke University Press, 2011), pp. 283–302.

  29. 29.

    Andaya, “Cloth Trade”, pp. 40–41.

  30. 30.

    Kwee Hui Kian, The Political Economy of Java’s Northeast Coast c. 1740–1800: TANAP Monographs on the History of the Asian-European Interaction (Leiden: Brill, 2006), pp. 63–64.

  31. 31.

    Gerrit Knapp, Shallow Waters, Rising Tide (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1996), p. 132, Table 20.

  32. 32.

    J.A. vander Chijs, ed., Nederlandsch-Indisch Plakaatboek 1602–1811, vol. 7 (Batavia, 1885–1900), p. 475.

  33. 33.

    15 August 1747, Plakaatboek V: pp. 471–472.

  34. 34.

    25 November 1751, Plakaatboek VI: p. 97.

  35. 35.

    Ruurdje Laarhoven, “The Power of Cloth: The Textile Trade of the Dutch East India Company [VOC] 1600-1780” (Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, 1994), pp. 258–261.

  36. 36.

    December 1748, Gentlemen 11: p. 713.

  37. 37.

    Alfons van der Kraan, “Anglo-Dutch Rivalry in the Java Cotton Trade, 1811–30”, Indonesia Circle 68 (1996): Table 2, p. 45, based on N. W. Posthumus, Dokumenten betreffende de buitenlandsche handelspolitiek van Nederland in de negentiende eeuw: II Onderhandelingen met Engeland over de koloniale handelspolitiek (1814–33) (Den Hag: Martinus Nijhoff, 1921), pp. 90–94

  38. 38.

    Alfons van der Kraan, Contest for Java Cotton Trade, 1811–40: An Episode in Anglo-Dutch Rivalry (Hull: Centre for South-East Asian Studies, 1998).

  39. 39.

    van der Kraan, Contest for Java Cotton Trade, p. 7, p. 12, p. 41, pp. 57–58; Hall, “Textile Trade,” pp. 120–122.

  40. 40.

    Peter Boomgaard, Children of the Colonial State: Population Growth and Economic Development in Java 1795–1880 (Amsterdam: Free Press, 1989), pp. 127–128.

  41. 41.

    Gerrit Pieter Rouffaer and C.Th van Derventer, De voornaamste industrieën der inlandsche bevolking van Java en Madoera (Gravenhage: M. Nijhoff, 1904), p. 7, 22–23.

  42. 42.

    Nagtegaal, Riding the Dutch Tiger, pp. 135, 149; Boomgaard, Children, pp. 220–228.

  43. 43.

    Radhika Seshan, Trade and Politics on the Coromandel Coast: Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries (Delhi: Primus Press, 2012).

  44. 44.

    Rouffaer and van Derventer, loc. cit.

  45. 45.

    Gerrit Pieter Rouffaer and H. H. Juynboll, De batik-kunst in Nederlandsch-Indië en haar geschiedenis: op grond van materiaal aanweizig in’s Rijks Ethnographisch Museum en andere openbare en particuliere verzamelingen in Nederland (Utrecht: A. Oosthoek, 1914), pp. 529–530.

  46. 46.

    Knapp, Shallow Waters; Leonard Blusse, Strange Company: Chinese Settlers, Mestizo Women and the Dutch in VOC Batavia (Dordrecht: KITLV Press, 1986); Heringa, “Upland Tribe,” and Fabric of Enchantment.

  47. 47.

    Rouffer and van Derventer, De voornaamste industrieën, p. 11.

  48. 48.

    O. W. Wolters, History, Culture and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives, rev. edn. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1999).

  49. 49.

    One may compare this conceptualization of ‘localization’ to Sheldon Pollock’s recent writings on the “Sanskrit cosmopolis,” relative to regional adaptations of Indic culture. See Sheldon Pollock, “The Sanskrit Cosmopolis, 300–1300: Transculturation, Vernacularization, and the Question of Ideology,” in Ideology and Status of Sanskrit, ed. Jan. E. M. Houben (Leiden: Brill, 1996); and “The Cosmopolitan Vernacular,” Journal of Asian Studies 57, no. 1 (1998): pp. 6–37. As a corrective, see Kenneth R. Hall, “Knowledge Networks, Literary Adaptations, and the ‘Sanskrit Cosmopolis’ in Fifteenth-Century Java,” forthcoming (Delhi: Primus Press, 2017).

  50. 50.

    As initially asserted in Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680, The Lands Below the Winds (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); but challenged by Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). See also William Gervase Clarence-Smith, “The Introduction of Cotton Textiles in Early Modern South-East Asia,” in The Spinning World, A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 1200–1850, ed. Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 127–142, for his substantive 2009 critique. Reid’s reconsideration is in Anthony Reid, “Southeast Asian Consumption of Indian and British Cotton Cloth, 1600–1850,” in How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500–1850, ed. Giorgio Riello and Tirthankar Roy (Leiden: Brill, 2009), pp. 31–51.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Ball State University, Muncie, USA

    Kenneth R. Hall

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  1. Kenneth R. Hall
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  1. Department of History, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA

    Pedro Machado

  2. Department of World Cultures, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Sarah Fee

  3. Indian Ocean World Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

    Gwyn Campbell

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Hall, K.R. (2018). Textile Reorientations: The Manufacture and Trade of Cottons in Java c. 1600–1850. In: Machado, P., Fee, S., Campbell, G. (eds) Textile Trades, Consumer Cultures, and the Material Worlds of the Indian Ocean. Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58265-8_8

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58265-8_8

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