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The Decline of the Malagasy Textile Industry, c. 1800–1895

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Textile Trades, Consumer Cultures, and the Material Worlds of the Indian Ocean

Part of the book series: Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies ((IOWS))

Abstract

It is conventionally thought that cheap mass-produced cloth emanating from European and North American factories, assisted by falling transport costs, undermined indigenous textile production in the non-western world. This chapter, which examines nineteenth-century Imerina, in Madagascar, suggests that textile production in Merina-dominated regions in the central highlands and eastern littoral remained vibrant until the time of the Britanno-Merina Treaty of 1820. Subsequently, traditional cotton textile production was steadily undermined, primarily due to the Merina regime’s generalized imposition of fanompoana (unremunerated forced labour for the state), which impoverished the masses and forced women, the backbone of traditional textile production, into other activities

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See e.g. Charles Issawi, “De-industrialization and Re-industrialization in the Middle East since 1800,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 12, no. 4 (1980): pp. 469–79; Amiya Kumar Bagchi, “De‐industrialization in India in the nineteenth century: Some theoretical implications,” Journal of Development Studies 12, no. 2 (1976): pp. 135–64; Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta, “Lancashire and Shifting Competitive Advantage in Cotton Textiles, 1700-1850: The Neglected Role of Factor Prices,” Economic History Review 62, no. 2 (2009): pp. 279–305.

  2. 2.

    John Mack, Malagasy Textiles (Princes Risborough: Shire, 1989); Rebecca L. Green, Once Is Never Enough: Textiles, Ancestors, and Reburials in Highland Madagascar (Bloomington: Indian Art Museum, 1998); Christine Mullen Kreamer and Sarah Fee, eds., Objects as Envoys: Cloth, Imagery, and Diplomacy in Madagascar (Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2002); Sarah Fee, “The Shape of Fashion: The Historic Silk Brocades (akotifahana) of Highland Madagascar,” African Arts 46, no. 3 (2013): pp. 26–39; Idem, “Chasing Silk: A search for meaning and memory in Madagascar’s illustrious textiles,” ROM Magazine (Fall 2013): 2733; Idem, “Ze mañeva aze: Looking for patterns in Malagasy cloth,” in Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies, ed. Ruth Barnes (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005), pp. 85–109; William Gervase Clarence-Smith, “Locally produced textiles on the Indian Ocean periphery 1500–1850: East Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia,” paper presented at the 8th Global Economic History Network Conference, Pune (Dec, 2005); Chapurukha M. Kusimba, J. Claire Odland, and Bennet Bronson, eds., Unwrapping the Textile Traditions of Madagascar (Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum Publications, 2004); Henri Mager, La Vie à Madagascar (Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1898); Idem, Rapport adressé aux chambres de commerce de Rouen et des Vosges, 2 vols. (Rouen: Ancienne Imprimerie Lapierre, 1897); W.J. Edmonds, “Bygone Ornamentation and Dress among the Hova Malagasy,” Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine (hereafter AAMM) 22 (1896): pp. 469–78.

  3. 3.

    Pier M. Larson, History and Memory in the Age of Enslavement: Becoming Merina in Highland Madagascar, 1770-1822 (Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 2000).

  4. 4.

    Guy Jacob , “Influences occidentales en Imerina et déséquilbres économiques avant la conquête française,” Omaly sy Anio pp. 5–6 (1977); Bernard Schlemmer , Le Menabe, histoire d’une colonisation (Paris: ORSTOM, 1983).

  5. 5.

    Fee, “Shape of Fashion”, p. 34; Sarah Fee, “Historic Handweaving in Highland Madagascar: New Insights from a Vernacular Text Attributed to a Royal Diviner Healer, c. 1870”, Textile History 43, no. 1 (2012): pp. 61–82; see also Simon Peers , ‘History and Change in the Weaving of Highland Madagascar’, in Unwrapping the Textile Traditions of Madagascar, ed. Chapurukha M. Kusimba, J. Claire Odland, and Bennet Bronson (Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum Publications, 2004), pp. 143–153.

  6. 6.

    Fee, “Historic Handweaving”, p. 153.

  7. 7.

    Sarah Fee, “Cloth in Motion: Madagascar’s Textiles through History,” in Objects as Envoys: Cloth, Imagery, and Diplomacy in Madagascar, ed. Christine Mullen Kreamer and Sarah Fee (Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2002), pp. 33–94; Fee, “Historic Handweaving”; Fee, “Shape of Fashion”; Mary Jo Arnoldi, “Gifts from the Queen: Two Malagasy Lamba Akotofahana at the Smithsonian Institution,” in Objects as Envoys: Cloth, Imagery, and Diplomacy in Madagascar, ed. Christine Mullen Kreamer and Sarah Fee (Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2002), pp. 95–119.

  8. 8.

    William Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 1 (London: Fisher, 1838), pp. 79, 277; Mayeur, “Voyage au pays d’ancove, autrement dit des hovas ou Amboilamba dans l’intérieur des terres, Isle de Madagascar” (1777), pp. 161, 165–166, 173 and William Ellis, “Voyage au pays d’ancove, par le pays d’ancaye autrement dit des Baizangouzangoux” (1785), pp. 220–1, 226– British Library Add.18128; George S. Chapus et André Dandouau, “Les anciennes industries malgaches,” Bulletin de l’Académie Malgache 30 (1951–1952): pp. 49–50; Samuel Pasfield Oliver, Madagascar; an Historical and Descriptive Account of the Island and its Former Dependencies, vol. 2 (London; New York, Macmillan, 1886), pp. 11, 79, 82–83; Guillaume Grandidier, Histoire Physique, Naturelle et Politique de Madagascar, vol. 4 tome 4 (Paris: Hachette et Société d’Éditions Géographiques, Maritimes et Coloniales, 1928), pp. 5, 84–86, 168; Charles Pridham, An Historical, Political and Statistical Account of Mauritius and its Dependencies (London: T. and W. Boone, 1849), p. 252; Gwyn Campbell, An Economic History of Imperial Madagascar, 1750-1895: The Rise and Fall of an Island Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 31–32.

  9. 9.

    J.B. Hutchinson, “New Evidence on the Origin of the Old World Cottons,” Heredity 8 (1954): pp. 225–241; Christophe Moulherat, Margareta Tengberg, Jérôme-F. Haquet, and Benoît Mille, “First Evidence of Cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead,” Journal of Archaeological Science 29, no. 12 (2002): pp. 1393–1401.

  10. 10.

    H.-M. Dubois, Monographie des Betsileo (Madagascar) (Paris: Institut d’Ethnologie, 1938), p. 280; Chapurukha M. Kusimba, “Introduction to Madagascar and its Textile Traditions,” in Unwrapping the Textile Traditions of Madagascar, ed. Chapurukha M. Kusimba, J. Claire Odland, and Bennet Bronson (Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum Publications, 2004), p. 24.

  11. 11.

    Alexander Ives Bortolot, “Kingdoms of Madagascar: Malagasy Textile Arts,” in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000)—http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/madg_3/hd_madg_3.htm (24/07/10); Kusimba, “Introduction to Madagascar,” p. 24; Hutchinson, “New Evidence on the Origin of the Old World Cottons,” p. 232; William Gervase Clarence-Smith, “The cotton textile industry of sub-Saharan Eastern Africa in the longue durée’,” 2—International Conference on “Understanding African Poverty over the Longue Durée,” Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, 15–17 July 2010.

  12. 12.

    James Hastie, “Diary” (1817), pp. 168–170, CO 167/34, British National Archives, Kew (hereafter NAK); Chapelier, “lettres adressées au citoyen préfet de l’ile de France, de décembre 1803 en mai 1805,” Bulletin de l’Académie Malgache 4 (1905–1906), pp. 38–39; Chardenoux, “Journal du voyage fait dans l’intérieure” (1816), p. 175—British Library Add.18129; Raombana, “texts” in Simon Ayache (ed.), Raombana (1809–1855) l’Historien II (Fianarantsoa, 1976), p. 13; Oliver, Madagascar, vol. 1, pp. 343, 387 and vol. 2, p. 13; Chapus et Dandouau, “anciennes industries malgaches,” pp. 49–50. See also Fanny Barsics, Tsiresy M. Razafimanantsoa, Joël Minet, Éric Haubruge, and François J. Verheggen, “Nocturnal moth inventory in Malagasy tapia woods, with focus on silk-producing species,” in Les vers à soie malgaches. Enjeux écologiques et socio-économiques, ed. François J. Verheggen, J. Bogaert, and Éric Haubruge (Gembloux: Presses agronomiques de Gembloux, 2013), pp. 77–89.

  13. 13.

    Anonymous, “Mémoire historique et politique sur l’Isle de Madagascar,” [1790], pp. 87–89, British Library Add.18126; Mayeur, “Voyage au pays d’ancove” (1777), pp. 165, 172–173 and (1785), p. 224; Chapelier, “lettres adressées,” pp. 38–39; Locke Lewis, “An Account of the Ovahs, a race of people residing in the Interior of Madagascar: with a Sketch of their Country, Appearance, Dress, Language, &c.,” Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 5 (1835): p. 234; Oliver, Madagascar, vol. 2, pp. 13, 191; Grandidier, Histoire (1928) p. 91; Anonymous, “Natural history notes,” AAMM 22 (1898), pp. 251–252; Chapus et Dandouau, “anciennes industries malgaches,” p. 50.

  14. 14.

    Hans Sloane, A Voyage to the Islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, St Christophers and Jamaica, vol. 2 (London: For the author, 1725), p. 196; P.L. Simmonds, “Spider Silk,” Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 35 (1886–1887): pp. 957–958.

  15. 15.

    Chapelier, “Manuscrits,” in Académie Malgache, Collection de documents concernant Madagascar et les pays voisins, vol. II (Tananarive: Académie Malgache, 1940), pp. 82–83; Oliver, Madagascar, vol. 2, p. 82; Grandidier, Histoire (1928), p. 169; Mager, La Vie à Madagascar, p. 26; Henri Joret, “Le Raphia Ruffia Mart” Le Naturaliste 13, vol. 2 (1891): p. 222.

  16. 16.

    Anonymous, “The Valley of the Mangoro, Madagascar,” Scottish Geographical Magazine 6 (1890): p. 427.

  17. 17.

    Pridham, Historical, Political and Statistical Account, p. 252; see also Anonymous, “Raphia Comm.,” Bulletin de la Société Nationale d’Acclimatation de France 4, no. 3 (1886): p. 762.

  18. 18.

    Désiré Laverdant, Colonisation de Madagascar (Paris: La Société Maritime, 1844), p. 129.

  19. 19.

    W.W. Robinson, “Cotton Manufactures in Madagascar” (Tamatave, 7 Aug 1880) in Cotton Goods Trade of the World 12 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1881), p. 142; see also ibid, p. 148; Anon, “ Valley of the Mangoro,” p. 427; Mager, Rapport vol.1, p. 29.

  20. 20.

    Jehenne, “Renseignements nautiques sur Nossi-bé, Nossi-Mitsiou, Bavatoubé etc. etc. (côte N.O. de Madagascar)” Annales Maritimes et Coloniales 3, vol. 1 (1843): p. 392.

  21. 21.

    Notes on the Madagascar Collection (Philadephia: Philadelphia Museums, 1906), pp. 1–4; Annual Report of the Philadelphia Museum (Philadelphia 1905), p. 14; Ibid (Philadelphia, 1906), pp. 14–16; Anon, “Mémoire historique,” [1790], p. 63; Mager, La Vie à Madagascar, p. 27.

  22. 22.

    Joret, “Raphia Ruffia Mart,” p. 221.

  23. 23.

    Mayeur, “Voyage au pays d’ancove” (1777), p.183 and (1785), p. 208; Anon, “Mémoire historique,” [1790], p. 62; Grandidier, Histoire (1908), pp. 243–246, 250 and (1928), p. 167.

  24. 24.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 40–41.

  25. 25.

    Campbell, Economic History, p. 55; Jeffrey A. Hess, “An Indian Ocean Odyssey: Malagasy Raffia Ikat Textiles in Gujarat” in Textiles from India: The Global Trade, ed. Rosemary Crill (Calcutta: Seagull Books, 2006), p. 204.

  26. 26.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 42, 55.

  27. 27.

    Raombana, Histoires (1853), p. 3—Archives de l’Académie Malgache; André Coppalle, “Voyage dans l’intérieur de Madagascar et à la capitale du roi Radame pendant les années 1825 et 1826,” p. 8—http://www.bextes.org/coppalle.pdf (15/10/07); Jean-Louis Joseph Carayon, Histoire de l’établissement français de Madagascar pendant la Restauration (Paris: Gide, 1845), xxxiii, fn.1; Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 2, p. 331

  28. 28.

    British Parliamentary papers; see also Lyons McLeod, Madagascar and Its People (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green, 1865), p. 210; Mager, Rapport vol. 1, pp. 33–34.

  29. 29.

    Oliver, Madagascar vol. 2, pp. 82–3, 178; James Wills, “Native products used in Malagasy industries,” AAMM 9 (1885), pp. 126–127; James Sibree, Things Seen in Madagascar (London: Livingstone Press, 1921), pp. 30–1; Idem, “The Arts and Commerce of Madagascar, its recent progress, and its future prospects,” Journal of the Society of Arts (June 1880): p. 623; Campbell, Economic History, pp. 40, 42, 44, 66, 189; James Richardson, A New Malagasy-English Dictionary (Antananarivo, Madagascar, 1885), pp. 296, 301, 524, 534; Émile Monod, L’Exposition universelle de 1889, vol. 2 (Paris: E. Dentu, 1890), pp. 266, 270.

  30. 30.

    Monod, L’Exposition universelle, vol. 2, p. 266; Campbell, Economic History, p. 57.

  31. 31.

    Larson, History and Memory.

  32. 32.

    Georges Sully Chapus and E. Ratsimba, trans., Histoire des Rois: Tantaran’ ny Andriana, vol. 5 (Antananarivo: Académie Malgache et Université de Nice, 1978), pp. 321–322, 633.

  33. 33.

    Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 1, pp. 114, 152.

  34. 34.

    Histoire des Rois, vol. 5, pp. 276–277; see also Chardenoux, “Journal du voyage fait dans l’intérieure,” p. 174.

  35. 35.

    Legueval de Lacombe, Voyage à Madagascar et aux iles Comores (1823 a 1830) 2 vols. (Paris, L. Desessart, 1840); see also James Sibree, “Maps of Madagascar,”’ AAMM 3: pp. 11–15 (1877), p. 12; L. Dahle, “Geographical Fictions with Regard to Madagascar,” AAMM 8 (1884), p. 107.

  36. 36.

    James Hastie, “Journal” (1817) in Bulletin de l’Académie Malgache 2 (1902): pp. 184, 250–251.

  37. 37.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 63–67.

  38. 38.

    Despite assertions—based on Réunionnais’ records—to the contrary, Claude Wanquet, Fragments pour une histoire des économies et sociétés de plantation à la Réunion (Université de la Réunion, 1989), 205; see Gwyn Campbell, ‘Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810–1895’, Journal of African History 22, no. 2 (1981): pp. 206, 208.

  39. 39.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 70–71.

  40. 40.

    Hastie, “Diary” (1817), p. 188; idem, “Diary” (1820), p. 472, CO.167/50; Farquhar, ‘Minute’ on Madagascar (Port Louis, August 1822) and Farquhar to Earl Bathurst, Port Louis, 29 July 1822, CO 167/63, NAK; Campbell, “Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895,” pp. 206, 208.

  41. 41.

    This probably underpins the 1822 ‘female’ protest against the pro-British policies of the Merina Crown—see Gwyn Campbell, ‘Larceny in the Highlands of Madagascar’, Slavery and Abolition 23, no. 1 (2002): pp. 137–146.

  42. 42.

    Canham to Burder, Ifenoarivo, 5 Nov 1824, SOAS/LMS Archives, Madagascar: Incoming Letters (hereafter SOAS/LMS-MIL), B2.F1.JD; see also Jones and Griffiths to LMS, Antananarivo, 2 June 1824, SOAS/LMS-MIL, B2.F1.JA.

  43. 43.

    R. T. Farquhar, Simmons, Pallister, Wilkinson and Thomas Winkworth, “Silk from the Isle of France,” Transactions of the Society, Instituted at London, for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce 42 (1823): pp. 168–175; George Richardson Porter, A Treatise on the Origin, Progressive Improvement, and Present State of the Silk Manufacture (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green and John Taylor, 1831), p. 39; ‘“Extracts” of letters from Chazal to Farquhar, 19 and 26 December 1815’ in The Literary Panorama and National Register 5 (1817), p. 447. W. Draper Bolton, Bolton's Mauritius Almanac, and Official Directory for 1852 (Mauritius: Mauritian Printing Establishment, 1852), p. 26; Report of the Royal Commissioners Appointed to Enquire into the Treatment of Immigrants in Mauritius (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1875) vol. 1, p. 26 and vol. 34, p. 26.

  44. 44.

    Gwyn Campbell, “Imperial Rivalry in the Western Indian Ocean and Schemes to Colonise Madagascar (1769-1826),” in African Networks, Exchange and Spatial Dynamics, Laurence Marfaing and Brigitte Reinwald (eds) (Münster: LIT, 2001), p. 120.

  45. 45.

    Alfred et Guillaume Grandidier, Histoire Physique, Naturelle et Politique de Madagascar. vol. 4, Tome 1 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1908), p. 604; see also Gwyn Campbell, David Griffiths and the Missionary ‘History of Madagascar’ (Leiden: Brill, 2012), pp. 623–626.

  46. 46.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 31, 101.

  47. 47.

    Laverdant, Colonisation de Madagascar, p. 129.

  48. 48.

    Caledonian Mercury (22 Oct 1836).

  49. 49.

    Le Sage, “Mission to Madagascar” (1816), CO. 167/34; Farquhar to Wilmott, Madagascar, 6 June 1823, CO.167/66, NAK; and Hastie, ‘Diary’ (1817), pp. 159, 173; James Hastie, “Diary” in Daniel Tyerman and George Bennett, Journal of Voyages and Travels, 1821-1829 ed.James Montgomery, vol. 2 (London: Westley & Davis, 1831), pp. 189–190; Bojer, “Journal” in Jean Valette ed., “L’Imerina en 1822–1825 d’après les journaux de Bojer et d’Hilsenburg, extrait du Bulletin de Madagascar (avril–mai 1963), p. 24; Leminier, ‘Notes sur une excursion faites dans l’intérieur de l’ile de Madagascar’, (1825). in Bulletin de Madagascar 292 (1970), p. 778; W. F. W. Owen, Narrative of Voyages to… Africa , Arabia, and Madagascar II (London: Bentley, 1833), p. 171; James Cameron, Recollections of Mission Life in Madagascar during the early days of the LMS Mission (Antananarivo: Abraham Kingdon, 1874), p. 28; Raombana, “texts,” pp. 1–3.

  50. 50.

    Farquhar et al., “Silk from the Isle of France,” p. 170.

  51. 51.

    Wills, “Native products,” p. 224.

  52. 52.

    Hastie, “Diary” (2 April 1825), CO.167/78 pt.II, NAK.

  53. 53.

    Grandidier, Histoire (1928), p. 171.

  54. 54.

    James Hastie, “Report on Missionary Instruction in Ovah” (17 March 1824), and James Hastie, “Report on the Schools superintended by the Missionaries at Tananarive” (19 April 1824), CO.167/78, pt. II, NAK.

  55. 55.

    Jones and Griffiths to LMS (n.d.), SOAS/LMS-MIL, B2.F1.JB; William Ellis, Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853-1854-1856 (London: Murray, 1859), pp. 341–342; Keturah Jeffreys, The Widowed Missionary’s Journal (Southampton: Westley and Davis, 1827), pp. 173–176.

  56. 56.

    Raombana, “Histoires,” pp. 96-7; idem, “Annales” (1853), pp. 297, 300 - Archives de l’Académie Malgache; Barry to Hastie, Port Louis, 12 May 1823, CO.167/77, NAK; Freeman to Burder, Antananarivo, 23 Oct.1827, SOAS/LMS-MIL, B2.F5.

  57. 57.

    Raombana, “Histoires,” pp. 6–7; Jones and Griffiths to LMS, Antananarivo, 2 June 1824, SOAS/LMS-MIL, B2.F1.JA; Rowlands to Burder, Antananarivo, 17 June 1824, SOAS/LMS-MIL, B2.F1.JB; Rowlands to LMS, Antsahadinta, 13 June 1826, SOAS/LMS-MIL, B2.F3.JA; Jones and Griffiths to Burder, Antananarivo, 30 May 1827, SOAS/LMS-MIL, B2.F3.JA.

  58. 58.

    Canham to Burder, Antananarivo, 30 June 1822, SOAS/LMS-MIL, B1.F4.JA; Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 2, p. 275.

  59. 59.

    Robin to missionaries, 24 Jan and 14 Feb 1827, SOAS/LMS-MIL, Bx.2 F.4 J.A; Rowlands to Jones and Griffiths, Amparibe, 15 May 1827; Cummins to Jones and Griffiths, Amparibe, 17 May 1827; Jones and Griffiths to Burder, Tananarive, 30 May 1827—SOAS/LMS-MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.A; Griffiths to LMS, Tananarivou, 10 Jun 1827; Jones to Hankey, Tananarivou, 15 June 1827—SOAS/LMS-MIL Bx.2 F.4 J.B.

  60. 60.

    Jones and Griffiths to [LMs] nd [1823?], SOAS/LMS-MIL, Bx.1 F.5 J.A; Rowlands to Burder, Antananarivo, 17 June 1824, SOAS/LMS-MIL, Bx.2 F.1 J.B; Rowlands to Burder, Antananarivo, 26 Dec 1825, SOAS/LMS-MIL, Bx.2 F.2 J.C; Jones and Griffiths to Burder, Tananarive, 30 May 1827, SOAS/LMS-MIL, Bx.2 F.4 J.A. Freeman to [LMS], Tananarivou 23 Oct 1827; Cameron, Recollections of Mission Life, p. 7; Wills, “Native products,” pp. 126–128; Campbell, Economic History, pp. 73–75, 92–93.

  61. 61.

    As well as twelve sergeants’ regulation belts, 400 pieces of white cloth, 500 pieces of Indian blue cloth and, for the king, a dress coat (with two epaulets), boots, and cocked hat—Papers relating to the Abolition of the Slave Trade in the Mauritius: 1817-1820, vol. 18 (House of Commons, 1821), p. 360.

  62. 62.

    Anon, letter, Mauritius, 10 Oct 1824, in Caledonian Mercury (8 January 1825).

  63. 63.

    Campbell, Economic History, 124–125.

  64. 64.

    Jones to Farquhar, Antananarivo, 25 March 1822, CO.167/63, NAK; David Griffiths, Hanes Madagascar (Machynlleth: Richard Jones, 1843), p. 29; Ellis, History of Madagascar vol.1, pp. 277–278; Jean Valette, Études sur le règne de Radama I (Tananarive: Imprimerie Nationale, 1962), p. 321; Raombana, Histoires, pp. 6–7.

  65. 65.

    Raombana B2 Livre 13, 18, Archives de l’Académie Malgache; A.M. Hewlett, “Mantasoa and its Workshops; a page in the History of Industrial Progress in Madagascar” AAMM 11 (1887), pp. 378, 381; Oliver, Madagascar, vol. 2, p. 107; G.S. Chapus, Quatre-vingts années d’influences européennes en Imerina (1815-1895) (Tananarive: Académie Malgache, 1925), pp. 204–5.

  66. 66.

    Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 1, p. 338; James Holman, A Voyage Round the World, including Travels in Africa , Asia , Australasia, America etc. etc., vol. 2 (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1834), p. 473; McLeod, Madagascar and Its People, p. 266. For the akotifahana, see Fee, “Cloth in Motion,” pp. 55–56; Fee, “Shape of Fashion”; Idem, “Chasing Silk”.

  67. 67.

    House of Commons, Foreign Trade – Mauritius (1835), p. 567; Pridham, Historical, Political and Statistical Account, p. 251.

  68. 68.

    See Gwyn Campbell, Economic History, pp. 344–346.

  69. 69.

    See Fig. 12.1.

  70. 70.

    The New American Cycloædia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge 11 (New York: D. Appleton, 1863), p. 26; see also Lieut. Charles Brand, “A Visit to the Island of Madagascar,” The United Service Journal and Naval and Military Magazine 11 (Nov, 1829): p. 536.

  71. 71.

    J. P. Finkelmeier, Tamatave, 1 Oct 1866 in Report upon the Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries for the Year ending September 30, 1866 (Washington,Government Printing Office, 1867), p. 549.

  72. 72.

    “Report by Mr. Consul Pakenham of the Trade of Madagascar for the Year 1863,” in Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office from Her Majesty’s Consuls between July 1st 1863 and June 30th 1864 (London: Harrison and Sons, 1864), p. 113.

  73. 73.

    Cotton Supply Association, Cotton Culture in New or Partially Developed Sources of Supply (Manchester: John J. Sale, 1862), pp. 31–32.

  74. 74.

    Alexander Andrews, “Cotton Possibilities” The New Monthly Magazine 133 (1865): p. 444; Thomas Conolly Pakenham, “Madagascar” in Foreign Office, Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office from Her Majesty’s Consuls, vol. 26 (London: Harrison and Sons, 1880), p. 239.

  75. 75.

    J. P. Finkelmeier, ‘Madagascar’, Tamatave, 30 Sep 1872 in Department of State, Annual Report on Commercial Relations between the United States and Foreign Nations… for the Year ending September 30 1871 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1872), p. 880.

  76. 76.

    Lieut. Burnes, quoted in William Samuel Waithman Ruschenberger, A Voyage Round the World: Including an Embassy to Muscat and Siam in 1835, 1836, and 1837 (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea and Blanchard, 1838), p. 47.

  77. 77.

    Secretary of State, Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries during the Years 1882 and 1883, vol. 2 (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1884), p. 119; Pakenham, “Madagascar,” Tamatave, 31 Dec 1873, in Reports from Her Majesty’s Consuls on the Manufactures, Commerce, &c. of their Consular Districts pt. 3 (cont’d) (London: Harrison, 1874), p. 1396; Pakenham, “Madagascar,” in Reports from Her Majesty’s Consuls on the Manufactures, Commerce, &c. of their Consular Districts, pt. 1 (London: Harrison, 1880), p. 238.

  78. 78.

    Milhet-Fontarabie, “relation” (1860) in Francis Riaux, “Notice Historique sur Madagascar” in Ida Pfieffer, Voyage à Madagascar [1857] (Paris: Librarie Hachette, 1881), p. 21; Norman R. Bennett, Studies in East African History (Boston: Boston University Press, 1963), pp. 36–37; Kessler Vrocker to John Bertram, Tamatave, 11 July 1867, John Bertram Papers B2.F5, Agency Records - Tamatave. Correspondence and Accounts, 1867-1870, Peabody Essex Museum (hereafter, PEM); Finkelmeier to Seward, 1 Oct 1866 and 11 Apr 1867; “8th Annual Commercial Report” (24 Oct 1873); Robinson to Hunter, 1 Oct.1877; Robinson to Payson, 7 Aug 1880—United States National Archives, Washington, DC (hereafter US); Louis Catat, Voyage à Madagascar (1889-1890) (Paris, Hachette, 1895), p. 62; Robinson, “Cotton Manufactures,” pp. 147–8.

  79. 79.

    Gwyn Campbell, ‘“Toamasina (Tamatave) and the Growth of Foreign Trade in Imperial Madagascar, 1862-1895,” in Figuring African Trade, ed. Gerhard Liesegang et al. (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1986), pp. 528–9; Finkelmeier to Seward, 12 Dec. 1865 and 11 April 1867; Robinson to Hankey, 29 Oct.1877; idem to Payson, 7 Aug.1880; Wetter to Uhl, 26 Sep.1894 –US; Pakenham to Granville, Tamatave, 3 Jan 1883, in House of Commons, “Correspondence Respecting Madagascar Relating to the Mission of Hova Envoys to Europe in 1882-1883,” no. 67, Africa 1 (1883); Hermann Kellenbenz, “Zanzibar et Madagascar dans le commerce allemand, 1840-1880,” Colloque d’histoire de Madagascar (Université de Madagascar, Mahajanga, 1981); William Fairburn, Merchant Sail, vol. 5 (Lovell: Fairburn Marine Educational Foundation, 1945-55), p. 3014; Ropes, Emmerton & Co. to J. Orme Ryder, Salem, 30 April 1883 and 7 May 1883; Ropes, Emmerton & Co.to Whitney, Salem, 21 December 1883—Emmerton & Co. and Arnold Hines & Co, Partner and Agency Records, PEM.

  80. 80.

    Pakenham, “Madagascar,” 238.

  81. 81.

    Finkelmeier to Hunter, 1 October 1877, US2; Gwyn Campbell, “Currency Crisis, Missionaries, and the French Takeover in Madagascar, 1861-1895,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 21, no. 2 (1988): pp. 278–9.

  82. 82.

    Secretary of State, Report upon the Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries for the Year ending September 30, 1879, vol. 1 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1880), pp. 231–2; Robinson, “Cotton Manufactures,” p. 145.

  83. 83.

    Robinson, “Cotton Manufactures,” p. 146; Belle McPherson Campbell, Madagascar (Chicago: Woman’s Prebyterian Board of Missions of the Northwest, 1889), p. 17.

    Robinson, Tamatave, 30 Jun 1884, in Reports from the Consuls of the United States on the Commerce, Manufactures, etc. of their Consular Districts 42 (Jun 1884) (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1884), p. 757; Mager, Rapport, vol. 1, 8, pp. 11–12.

  84. 84.

    Blyth Bros. to Ropes, Emmerson & Co. Mauritius, 9 Jun 1884, Partner and Agency Records. Madagascar Agencies. Correspondence Sent. Letterbook 1884-87 (May–Oct 1884), Bx.44 F.5, PEM.

  85. 85.

    Robinson, Tamatave, 20 July 1884, in Reports from the Consuls of the United States on the Commerce, Manufactures, etc. of their Consular Districts 43 (Sep 1884) (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1884), p. 14.

  86. 86.

    Robinson, Tamatave, 3 Jul 1885, in Secretary of State, Report upon the Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries during the Years 1884 and 1885 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1886), p. 518; Bachelder to Dawson, Antananarivo, 4 Aug 1884, Partner and Agency Records. Madagascar Agencies. Correspondence Sent. Letterbook 1884-87 (May-Oct 1884), Bx.44 F.5, PEM; Mager, Rapport, vol. 1, p. 26.

  87. 87.

    “Memoranda relating to Samples sent the undersigned by J.E. Dawson Esq., Tamatave,” in N.E. Bachelder to Ropes, Emmerton & Co., Antananarivo, 18 Jul 1885, and N.E. Bachelder to Dawson, Antananarivo, 9 May 1885, Bx.44 F.3, PEM.

  88. 88.

    Campbell, “Currency Crisis,” p. 283.

  89. 89.

    See Table 2.

  90. 90.

    W.W. Robinson to Victor F.W. Stanwood, US Consulate, Tamatave, 27 Oct 1880, Andakabe Agency (1880-83), US.

  91. 91.

    Bachelder to Dawson, Antananarivo, 20 Jun and 10 Jul 1885, and Laborde to Dawson, Vatomandry, 22 Jul 1885—Bx.44 F.3, PEM; Campbell, “Currency Crisis,” pp. 284–5; Idem, “Labour and the Transport Problem in Imperial Madagascar, 1810-1895,” Journal of African History 21, no. 3 (1980): pp. 341–56; Whitney to Ropes, Emmerton & Co, and Arnold, Hines & Co, Tamatave, 17 Dec.1886; Whitney to Ropes, Emmerton & Co, Tamatave, 26 July 1887, PEM; Reports from the Consuls of the United States on the Commerce, Manufactures, etc. of their Consular Districts 19 (May 1882) (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1882), p. 48; Campbell to Rainilaiarivony, Tamatave, 3 Jan 1890, Enclosure 10 in Campbell to Wharton, Tamatave, 26 Apr 1890, US.

  92. 92.

    Laborde to Dawson, Vatomandry, 20 June 1885; Duder to Dawson, Antananarivo, 21 & 27 December 1889, PEM.

  93. 93.

    Whitney to Ropes, Emmerton & Co, Tamatave, 1 May 1888; Dawson to Ropes, Emmerton & Co, Tamatave, 27 April 1890, PEM.

  94. 94.

    Laborde to Whitney, Vatomandry, 28 June 1886 and Vatomandry, 1 Nov.1886; Whitney to Ropes Emmerton & Co, Tamatave, 2 April 1888; Edward P. Duder to Whitney, Antananarivo, 10 Aug 1889; Bachelder to Dawson, Antananarivo, 20 June, 10 and 17 July 1885, PEM.

  95. 95.

    J. E. Dawson to Arnold, Hines & Co., and Ropes, Emmerton & Co.,Tamatave, 18 Jul, and 14 and 29 Aug 1884, Bx.44 F.5; Laborde to Dawson, Vatomandry, 20 Jun 1885, Bx.44 F.3, PEM.

  96. 96.

    Whitney to Ropes, Emmerton & Co, Tamatave, 1 May 1888, PEM.

  97. 97.

    Campbell to Wharton, Tamatave, 23 Dec 1889, US.

  98. 98.

    Campbell to Wharton, Tamatave, 26 Apr 1890, US.

  99. 99.

    Ropes, Emmerton & Co, to Cheney, Salem, 22 Sep and 21 Oct 1885; Dawson to Ropes, Emmerton & Co, Tamatave, 6 Nov 1890, PEM.

  100. 100.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 300–302.

  101. 101.

    Whitney to Ropes, Emmerton & Co, Tamatave, 27 Feb, 19 and 27 March 1891, PEM.

  102. 102.

    Dawson to Ropes, Emmerton & Co, Tamatave, 27 April 1890; Ryder to Ropes, Emmerton & Co, Tamatave, 27 Dec 1892, PEM; Madagascar Times (30 Jul 1884), p. 276.

  103. 103.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 301–3; Duder to Ropes, Emmerton & Co, Antananarivo, 20 March 1893, PEM.

  104. 104.

    Robinson, Tamatave, 20 July 1884, in Reports from the Consuls (Sep 1884), p. 14.

  105. 105.

    Campbell, Economic History, p. 76.

  106. 106.

    See table; Campbell, Economic History, pp. 148, 162–164.

  107. 107.

    Raombana B2 Livre, 13, p. 18.

  108. 108.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 246–7.

  109. 109.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 248–9.

  110. 110.

    Gwyn Campbell, “Missionaries, Fanompoana and the Menalamba Revolt in late nineteenth century Madagascar,” Journal of Southern African Studies 15, no. 1 (1988): pp. 58–61.

  111. 111.

    Karl Jakobsen, “Ny Tantaranny Stasiona Fihasinana, taona 1875-1943” (Fihasinana,

    1944), pp. 9–10, Boks 57, NMS/FLM Archives, Isoraka, Antananarivo; Gwyn Campbell, “Gold Mining and the French Takeover of Madagascar, 1883-1914” African Economic History 17 (1988), pp. 1–28.

  112. 112.

    LMS, Ten Years’ Review of Mission Work in Madascar 1880-1890 (Antananarivo: LMS, 1890), pp. 33, 93; The Madagascar Times, 8 Dec 1888; Haile to PM, Ambohibeloma, 28 Aug 1889, HHI, pp. 529–3. Archives Nationales, Antananarivo.Campbell, ‘Missionaries’.

  113. 113.

    Campbell, “Missionaries”, pp. 56–57.

  114. 114.

    Campbell, “Missionaries.”

  115. 115.

    K. Fagereng, “Ny fandrosoan ‘ny vehivavv sy ny fikambananay tao anatin ’ny 50 taona” (1924), in

    Dahle (ed), Atopazy ny Masonao (Tananarive: NMS, 1974), pp. 76–78; see also Ellis, History of Madagascar vol. 1, p. 288.

  116. 116.

    Joseph Pearse, “LMS Churches and Congregations and Christian Life” AAMM 19 (1895), p. 319; C.F.A. Moss, A Pioneer in Madagascar. Joseph Pearse of the LMS (London: Headley Brothers, 1913), pp. 43–4; Mager, Rapport, vol. 1, p. 43.

  117. 117.

    Gwyn Campbell, ‘An Industrial Experiment in Pre-Colonial Africa ; The Case of Imperial Madagascar, 1825-1861’, Journal of Southern African Studies 17, no. 3 (1991): p. 557.

  118. 118.

    William Ellis, The Martyr Church (London: John Murray, 1867), p. 28.

  119. 119.

    Raombana Bk.13 B.2, 25; see also Campbell, “Industrial Experiment,” p. 557.

  120. 120.

    Finaz, “Journal” (1855-7), p. 113 - Diaires 11.20, Archives de la Vice-Province Société de Jésus de Madagascar, Antananarivo; see also idem, p. 31: Raombana Bk.12 C.1, p. 489; Raombana, “Annales,” p. 247.

    Campbell, “Missionaries,” p. 63.

  121. 121.

    See Campbell, Economic History, pp. 344–346.

  122. 122.

    Mager, Rapport, vol. 1, p. 7.

  123. 123.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 155–156.

  124. 124.

    Campbell, Economic History, pp. 155–156.

  125. 125.

    Campbell, “Missionaries.”

  126. 126.

    Gwyn Campbell, “Crisis of Faith and Colonial Conquest: The Impact of Famine and Disease in Late Nineteenth-Century Madagascar,” Cahiers d’Études africaines 32, no. 127 (1992): pp. 423, 426–427.

  127. 127.

    Campbell, “Crisis of Faith,” pp. 421–428.

  128. 128.

    Robinson, Tamatave, 1 Oct 1876 in Secretary of State, Report upon the Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries for the Year ending September 30, 1876 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1877), p. 739; Robertson, Tamatave, 1 Oct 1878 in Secretary of State, Report upon the Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries for the Year ending September 30, 1878 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1879), p. 936.

  129. 129.

    Campbell, “Crisis of Faith.”

  130. 130.

    Rowlands to LMS, Antsahadinta, 13 Jun 1826, SOAS-LMS MIL B.2 F.3 J.A.

  131. 131.

    Wills, “Native Products,” pp. 124–5; Sibree, “Arts and Commerce,” p. 625; Arthur Leib, “The Mystical Significance of Colours in the Life of the Natives of Madagascar” Folklore 57. 3 (1946), pp. 130–1.

  132. 132.

    Jones and Griffiths to Burder, Tananarivo, 30 May 1827, Bx.2 F.4 J.A, SOAS/LMS MIL; David Jones to Miss Jane Darby, Gosport, Tananarivoo 14 March 1822, ‘David Jones. Copies of Letters 1818-39’ Madagascar Odds Bx.4 – SOAS/LMS; Griffiths, Hanes, pp. 29, 35; Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 1, pp. 277–278, 282, 339–340, 349 and vol. 2, p. 269; Jones to Farquhar, Antananarivo, 25 March 1822, CO.167/63, NAK; Rabary, Ny Daty Malaza vol. I (Tananarive: LMS, 1930), pp. 24, 41; Raombana, Histoires, pp. 6–7; David Jones in The Manchester Times and Gazette (2 June 1832).

  133. 133.

    Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 1, p. 283; Wills, “Native Products,” pp. 124–5; Moss, Pioneer, pp. 16–17; Sibree, “Arts and Commerce,” p. 625; W.E. Cousins, Madagascar of To-Day (London: Religious Tract Society, 1895), pp. 42–3.

    Grandidier, Histoire (1908), p. 659.

  134. 134.

    Quoted in ‘Magnificence of the Court of Tananarivo’, Morning Post (14 April 1843).

  135. 135.

    See illustration.

  136. 136.

    d’Anthouard, in “The Agricultural Products of Madagascar,” Journal of the Society of Arts 39 (31 Jul 1891): p. 750; Steven Conn, Museums and American Intellectual Life, 1876-1926 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), p. 126.

  137. 137.

    James Sibree, Madagascar and its People (London: Religious Tract Society, 1870), p. 220; Robinson, “Cotton Manufactures,” p. 142; Auguste Vinson, Voyage à Madagascar au couronnement de Radama II (Paris, Roret, 1865), p. 318; Jacob, “Influences occidentales”; Schlemmer, Le Menabe.

  138. 138.

    Lewis, “Account of the Ovahs,” p. 234.

  139. 139.

    Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 1, pp. 279–80; see also Lewis, “Account of the Ovahs,” p. 234.

  140. 140.

    Griffiths, Hanes, p. 20.

  141. 141.

    Robinson, “Cotton Manufactures,” p. 142.

  142. 142.

    Mager, Rapport, vol. 1, p. 43.

  143. 143.

    Sibree, Madagascar and its People, p. 216.

  144. 144.

    From From “The Mission in Madagascar” in Fruits of Toil in the London Missionary Society (London: LMS, 1877), p. 26.

  145. 145.

    Camille de La Vaissière, Vingt ans à Madagascar (Paris, Victor Lecoffre, 1885), p. 14.

  146. 146.

    Robinson, “Cotton Manufactures,” p. 147.

  147. 147.

    The Madagascar Times (8 Dec 1888); Campbell, “Labour and the Transport,” pp. 341–56; Mager, La Vie à Madagascar, p. 13.

  148. 148.

    The Madagascar Times (8 December 1888); Campbell, ‘Labour and the Transport’, pp. 341–356; Mager, La Vie à Madagascar, p. 13.

  149. 149.

    Moss, Pioneer, p. 146.

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  1. McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada

    Gwyn Campbell

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  1. Department of History, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA

    Pedro Machado

  2. Department of World Cultures, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Sarah Fee

  3. Indian Ocean World Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

    Gwyn Campbell

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Campbell, G. (2018). The Decline of the Malagasy Textile Industry, c. 1800–1895. In: Machado, P., Fee, S., Campbell, G. (eds) Textile Trades, Consumer Cultures, and the Material Worlds of the Indian Ocean. Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58265-8_12

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