Abstract
[…] For Jews were not an accident of race, but simply man’s condition carried to its extreme […]. Made homeless in space, they had to expand into new dimensions, as the blind develop hearing and touch. The loss of the spatial dimension transformed this branch of the species as it would have transformed any other nation on earth, […] It turned their vision inwards. It made them cunning and grew them claws to cling on with as they were swept by the wind through countries that were not theirs. […] Reduced to drift-sand, they had to glitter if they wanted to avoid being trodden on. Living in bondage, cringing became second nature to their pride. Their natural selector was the whip: it whipped the life out of the feeble and whipped the spam of ambition into the fit. In all fields of living, to get an equal chance they had to start with a plus. Condemned to live in extremes, they were in every respect like other people, only more so. (Koestler 1946, pp. 355–356).
The decades after the World War II and the establishment of the State of Israel were years of mass immigration. To begin with, the immigrants to Israel were mainly survivors of the Holocaust, whether they came directly from Displaced Persons camps in Europe or from camps in Cyprus, where they were incarcerated by the British authorities for attempting “illegal immigration.” Gradually, however, the numbers of these immigrants were reinforced by increasing numbers of immigrants from the Orient – often whole communities – from Iraq and Iran, and soon also from Yemen and North Africa. With the emigration of Arabs from Israel as an outcome of Israel’s War of Independence, and with the waves of Jews coming in, Jews became the majority in the young state. This population was even more heterogeneous than before. In the 1950s, only about 30% of the inhabitants were born in Israel, some 20% were born in Poland and about 15% in Romania. Iraqi Jews comprised nearly 15% of the citizens, and North Africans somewhat less. Yemenite Jews comprised about 5% of the inhabitants. There were also some USSR-born and German-born immigrants.
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- 1.
The modern definition of a species would be a group of genetically compatible interbreeding individuals of natural populations that is genetically isolated from other such groups: Species have, by definition, a common gene pool. In spite of the difficulties in applying this definition in some cases (are pine trees in South America and in the faraway Middle East of the same species? Are the mountain goat and the domesticated goat (that do produce fertile progeny when hybridized by men), two different species? Including all human beings in one species, Homo sapiens, is not a problem, although not more than a century ago there were researchers who considered some African tribes and the Europeans to be different species. See, e.g., Gould (1981). See also Wade (2014).
- 2.
This does not exclude the possibility that social relationships may eventually end up in biologically meaningful segregation. Already many years ago (see e.g., Montagu 1974. One chapter in his book is entitled, “Are ‘the Jews’ a ‘race’?”) authors doubted the very term Jew as a race. See Barkan (1992).
- 3.
In recent years, repeated attempts have been made to overcome the reluctance conditioned by socio-cultural attitudes about using the term “race” for humans. The criteria should not be those of identity of characteristics, but may rather be those of historical – even prehistoric – partnerships: Races are ancestor-related breeding populations, whose members share common genomic patterns. As far as modern humans are concerned, distinct breeding populations are not so much an issue of geography as of socio-economic relationships. See, e.g., Part Two of Koenig et al. (2008); and Sesardic (2005). However, special attention must be given to Gannett’s (2004) reaction to Andreasen’s (2004) reification of the race concept and her criticism of the adherence to dichotomies between science and society, facts and values, nature and culture, and the biological and social. Gannett (2013, p., 138) quotes Griffiths’ words, “Kinds are the realist interpretation of Goodman’s [Facts, Fictions and Forcast] ‘projectible properties’. They represent correlations between properties, which our background theories suggest, can be relied upon to hold up in unobserved instances.”
- 4.
FMF refers to Familial Mediterranean Fever disease; DJS refers to Dubin-Jones Syndrome.
- 5.
Note that the probability of repeated events of rare mutations is not zero. Mutations in a gene may occur repeatedly, and the probability of observing such repeated occurrences increases the larger the population and the longer the time span observed.
- 6.
DNA molecules are helices constructed of double strands of anti-polar sequences of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a desoxyribose and phosphate moiety, connected to two adjacent similar moieties of the strand, and to one of four purine- or pyrimidine-residues. The strands are held together by specific weak hydrogen bonds between the purine residues and the pyrimidine residues of the counter-polar strands: adenine (A) with thymine (T); guanine (G) with cytosine (C).
A sequence of nucleotides codes for a sequence of amino-acids (a peptide) that is synthesized on the ribosomes (via an intermediary, the messenger-RNA copy of the respective nucleotide sequence of one of the complimentary DNA strands: G for C, C for G, T for A and A for U. U is the RNA-analog of DNA’s T): each specific triplets of nucleotides codes for the twenty amino-acids that comprise all proteins. The sequence of nucleotides (actually that of the copied messenger-RNA sequence) that codes for a peptide may be conceived as an approximation of the concept of the gene as a structural entity (see Falk 2010). Mutation in any of the nucleotides that code a given peptide may result in a similar effect at the phenotypic (e.g., clinical) level. For more details see any textbook of molecular genetics.
- 7.
There are many factors that act on natural populations in opposing directions, thus one may view a natural population as an entity that is striving toward equilibrium. A basic situation would be that of a large population with random mating, no selection, and no migration. As early as 1908, George Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg independently showed that if the proportions of the pair of alleles of a gene, A and a, are any value p and q respectively (p + q = 1.0), then within one generation the (large, random mating, non-migrating) population will reach an equilibrium of AA, Aa and aa at p 2, 2pq and q 2, respectively. Thus, the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium provides an anchor for analyzing the impact of forces working in any population in terms of its deviation from the equilibrium (see, e.g., Li 1955).
- 8.
This was the first “molecular disease” described. It turned out that the sickle cell defect was due to the replacement of a single amino-acid, glutamine, by valine at position 6 of the peptide, in the β-hemoglobin moiety. This caused the formation of the (defective) hemoglobin-S instead of hemoglobin-A. Eventually it turned out that, at the DNA level, this was a mutation that changed a specific adenine into thymine (turning the coding-triplet GAG into GTG).
- 9.
Whereas in Africa the frequency of the sickle cell allele is maintained by the balance between its deleterious effects and its beneficial effects, in America, where the need for protection against the impact of malaria became negligible, the equilibrium in African-Americans had been disturbed and, over the years, selection has already reduced the frequency of the allele for the defective hemoglobin.
- 10.
Allele O is recessive with respect to alleles A and B, both of which are dominant over O. Similar principles hold in the inheritance of other blood groups though the multiplicity of alleles and recessivity-dominance relationships between them may complicate the picture.
- 11.
These statements proved to have enormous practical value because they may allow for unequivocally excluding claims of identity. Hence the role that blood typing plays in forensic paternity cases. Furthermore, even when it is not possible to exclude paternal relationships, it is often possible to express in statistical terms the probability of a person carrying the given blood type.
- 12.
Electrophoresis – a laboratory method that measures the movement of a material like a drop of an enzyme in a semi-solid (gel-like) horizontal plate by running an electric current along the plate. Each component of the tested matter will move along the field as a function of its electric load and its attachment to the material of the plate. After some time, the current is broken and the distance each of the components moved is revealed by specific chemical staining.
- 13.
Each population carries at least some mutant alleles from the past. Given the frequency of an allele in a population, the frequency of homozygotes for this allele is linearly related to the rate of inbreeding. Put differently, in two populations with the same gene frequencies, the one with a higher inbreeding coefficient will have more individuals homozygous for the alleles of that gene.
- 14.
Bonné-Tamir suggested a similar idea in 2010.
- 15.
Notice that Mendel used his pea characteristics as good markers for elucidating the rules of inheritance of individuals in the family, and not of their distribution and inheritance in populations.
- 16.
Dor Yeshorim: Committee for Prevention of Jewish Genetic Diseases, established in Brooklyn, NY in, 1968. Yeshorim is the Yiddish pronunciation of the Hebrew Yesharim.
In 2013, the parents of Eden Gold, who suffered from mucolipidosis type 4 (ML4), established JScreen, a national public health initiative that offers a screening panel of 40 diseases common in the Jewish population (including the roughly 20 diseases that Ashkenazi Jews are at increased risk for) to Jews and also the general population.
- 17.
An interesting argument was raised in 1962 by Louis B. Brinn, a Jewish physician in New York, in the medical journal Harofe Haivri. According to him, with respect to these diseases in the Jewish communities, it was not necessary for the advantage of the heterozygotes that the frequency be higher among Jews than among non-Jews. It would suffice that the heterozygotes’ disadvantage among Jews would be less than that among non-Jews in order for the disease frequency among Jew to be higher than among non-Jews. The problem with such explanations is that, until today, we have no indication as to the reproductive advantage/disadvantage of heterozygotes for these phenomena (see Post (1973).
- 18.
Haploid segments are more bound to change than diploid segments. SNPs are due to rare mutations, STR polymorphisms are due to rather frequent intra-chromosomal recombination events. See also Chapter 9.
- 19.
Effective population size is the mathematically adjusted number of individuals in a population that are actually involved in reproduction in a given generation (so that populations with varying parameters, such as sex-ratio, inbreeding, etc., may be compared).
- 20.
See, for example Mourant’s confession (quoted further on in this chapter) regarding the sources of his interest in the blood groups of Jews. See also Goldstein (2008, pp. 44–45).
- 21.
For a discussion of the plight of the Lemba, see Goldstein (2008, pp. 40–60). The Eugenical News, 15 (1930, pp., 142–143), reviews the book by the Jesuit priest, J. J. Williams, Hebrewishness of West Africa, which claims Jewish infiltration into Central Africa, and presents claims of evidence of Jewish traits and beliefs among the Masaii, Ashanti, and Ivory Coast Africans: “The collection of a mass of data ‘cumulatively’ supporting the theory of a trek of Jews from Jerusalem to the Niger.”
- 22.
See, for example, “The Lethal Gene that Emerged in Ancient Palestine and Spread Around the Globe,” in the December 2011 print of Discover Magazine, regarding the BRCA1.185delAG mutation “that causes breast cancer.”
- 23.
Anthropological studies, relying on cultural and physical data for determining Jewishness (or the existence of the “Ten Lost Tribes”) have not disappeared (recall footnote 11 in Chap. 1). Rabbi Eliyahu Avichail followed the footsteps of tribes that he claimed were isolated communities who had lost their link to the Jewish world, contrary to other “Gentiles who attempt to be absorbed by Judaism.” He identified communities in South East Asia, Central Asia, and South America on the basis of their cultural traditions as well as on “a biological argument” [personal conversation]. He has even brought some communities to Israel. To the best of my knowledge, no genetic tests were carried out among them. Avichail is not the only one involved in identifying “lost Jewish tribes.” See, e.g., a review by Phillips (2002) of Hillel Halkin’s (2002) Across the Sabbath River: In Search of a Lost Tribe of Israel. Nurit Kirsh (2003, p. 651) has called attention to the mission-oriented use of rhetorical expressions, such as “tribe,” in these people’s exhortations.
- 24.
In October 1921 Arthur Ruppin of Jerusalem turned to the criminal identification services of the police in Berlin with a request to examine and classify some 10,000 identification-sheets of the service that had been accumulating over the years, and on the basis of this data, to determine where the Jews versus non-Jews belong. The project was never carried out because of the lack of manpower (Doron 1980, p. 416).
- 25.
Not all agreed. See, e.g. Montagu 1974, p. 325, who claimed that the Sephardim of today comprise physically a much more homogeneous group than the Ashkenazim, and that the Sephardim “preserve rather credibly the racial pattern of their Palestinian ancestors.” According to Montagu, it makes sense that the Sephardim are also less intermingled than the Ashkenazim; however, he doubted the extent to which they preserved the “racial” character of their Palestinian ancestors.
- 26.
Zionism in Yemenite Eyes (in Hebrew), Haaretz, October, 15, 1999, p. 8B. For a recent discussion of the reactions of the official Israeli and American Jewish authorities to the Yemenite Jews and their longing to immigrate to Israel, see Meir-Glitzenstein (2012).
- 27.
To be precise, it was the ease of collecting data that made blood types suitable for the study of the dynamics of population gene pools, as well as the high reliability of the field-collected data.
- 28.
R. C. Lewontin made the following point in the Annual Review of Genetics, Directions in evolutionary biology (2002): “On the conceptual side, unlike for molecular, cellular, and developmental biology, there is no basic mechanism that evolutionists are attempting to elucidate. There is no single cause of the evolutionary change in the properties of members of a species. Natural selection may be involved but so are random events, patterns of migration and interbreeding, mutational events, and horizontal transfer of genes across species boundaries. The change in each character of each species is a consequence of a particular mixture of these causal pathways.”
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Falk, R. (2017). The Inagathering of Exiles. In: Zionism and the Biology of Jews. History, Philosophy and Theory of the Life Sciences, vol 19. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57345-8_8
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