Abstract
We live in a world rife with unwanted intergroup bias. Is this inevitable, or can it be changed? Recent research suggests that people’s perspectives on this question may determine which reality emerges, one in which intergroup relations come to be improved over time, or one in which they are continually marked by intergroup divisions and bias. This chapter reviews the body of research on mindsets about malleability and stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination both from the perspective of perceivers (who exhibit bias) and targets (who experience bias). Given the evidence showing the importance of mindsets about malleability for the production of bias, people’s responses to it, and real-world intergroup reconciliation, we advocate an approach to the study of intergroup relations that considers people’s lay theories about malleability. Throughout, we discuss the implications and open questions that arise from this theoretical perspective.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(2), 113–125. doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1491
Bal, M., & Van den Bos, K. (2017). Effects of lay beliefs on the justice motive. In C. M. Zedelius, B. C. N. Müller, & J. W. Schooler (Eds.), The science of lay theories—How beliefs shape our cognition, behavior, and health. New York, NY: Springer.
Bar-Tal, D. (2001). Why does fear override hope in societies engulfed by intractable conflict, as it does in the Israeli society? Political Psychology, 22(3), 601–627. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00255
Bar-Tal, D., & Halperin, E. (2011). Socio-psychological barriers to conflict resolution. In D. Bar-Tal (Ed.), Intergroup conflicts and their resolution: Social psychological perspective (pp. 217–240). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2006). Psychological essentialism and stereotype endorsement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 228–235. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.003
Bergen, R. (1991). Beliefs about intelligence and achievement-related behaviors. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois.
Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246–263. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x
Bodenhausen, G. V. (1988). Stereotypic biases in social decision making and memory: Testing process models of stereotype use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(5), 726–737. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.726
Bogardus, E. (1947). Measurement of personal-group relations. Sociometry, 10(4), 306–311. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2785570
Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love and outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 429–444. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00126
Butz, D. A., & Plant, E. A. (2009). Prejudice control and interracial relations: The role of motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality, 77(5), 1311–1342. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00583.x
Cardwell, M. (1996). Dictionary of psychology. Chicago, IL: Fitzroy Dearborn.
Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S., & Pauker, K. (2012). “Prejudiced” behavior without prejudice? Beliefs about the malleability of prejudice affect interracial interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(3), 452–471. doi:10.1037/a0028849
Cehajic, S., Brown, R., & González, R. (2009). What do I care? Perceived ingroup responsibility and dehumanization as predictors of empathy felt for the victim group. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12(6), 715–729. doi:10.1177/1368430209347727
Chiu, C.-Y., Hong, Y.-Y., & Dweck, C. S. (1997). Lay dispositionism and implicit theories of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 19–30. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.19
Cimpian, A., Mu, Y., & Erickson, L. C. (2012). Who is good at this game? Linking an activity to a social category undermines children’s achievement. Psychological Science, 23(5), 533–541. doi:10.1177/0956797611429803
Cohen-Chen, S., Crisp, R. J., & Halperin, E. (2015). Perceptions of a changing world induce hope and promote peace in intractable conflicts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(4), 498–512. doi:10.1177/0146167215573210
Cohen-Chen, S., Halperin, E., Crisp, R. J., & Gross, J. J. (2014). Hope in the Middle East: Malleability beliefs, hope, and the willingness to compromise for peace. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5(1), 67–75. doi:10.1177/1948550613484499
Coleman, P. T. (2003). Characteristics of protracted, intractable conflict: Toward the development of a metaframework-I. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 9(1), 1–37. doi:10.1207/S15327949PAC0901_01
Crandall, C. S., Eshleman, A., & O’Brien, L. (2002). Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(3), 359–378. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.3.359
Crisp, R. J., & Hewstone, M. (2007). Multiple social categorization. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 163–254. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(06)39004-1
Crisp, R. J., Husnu, S., Meleady, R., Stathi, S., & Turner, R. N. (2010). From imagery to intention: A dual route model of imagined contact effects. European Review of Social Psychology, 21, 188–236. doi:10.1080/10463283.2010.543312
Cuddy, A. J. C., Rock, M. S., & Norton, M. I. (2007). Aid in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina: Inferences of secondary emotions and intergroup helping. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10(1), 107–118. doi:10.1177/1368430207071344
Dardenne, B., Dumont, M., & Bollier, T. (2007). Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women’s performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(5), 764–779. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.764
Dar-Nimrod, I., & Heine, S. J. (2006). Exposure to scientific theories affects women’s math performance. Science, 314(5798), 435. doi:10.1126/science.1131100
de Dreu, C. K. W. (2010). Social value orientation moderates ingroup love but not outgroup hate in competitive intergroup conflict. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 13(6), 701–713. doi:10.1177/1368430210377332
Deitch, E. A., Barsky, A., Butz, R. M., Chan, S., Brief, A. P., & Bradley, J. C. (2003). Subtle yet significant: The existence and impact of everyday racial discrimination in the workplace. Human Relations, 56(11), 1299–1324. doi:10.1177/00187267035611002
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 5–18. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.56.1.5
Devine, P. G., & Elliot, A. J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(11), 1139–1150. doi:10.1177/01461672952111002
Dixon, K. A., Storen, D., & Van Horn, C. E. (2002). A workplace divided: How Americans view discrimination and race on the job. Work trends: Americans’ attitudes about work, employers and government.
Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., & Esses, V. M. (2013). Prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination: Theoretical and empirical overview. In J. F. Dovidio, M. Hewstone, P. Glick, & V. M. Esses (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination (pp. 3–28). London/Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33(5), 510–540. doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1331
Dunton, B. C., & Fazio, R. H. (1997). An individual difference measure of motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(3), 316–326. doi:10.1177/0146167297233009
Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. New York: Psychology Press.
Dweck, C. S., Chiu, C.-Y., & Hong, Y.-Y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions: A word from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry, 6(4), 267–285. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0604_1
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256–273. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256
Eberhardt, J. L., Dasgupta, N., & Banaszynski, T. L. (2003). Believing is seeing: The effects of racial labels and implicit beliefs on face perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(3), 360–370. doi:10.1177/0146167202250215
Ely, R. J., Meyerson, D. E., & Davidson, M. N. (2006). Rethinking political correctness. Harvard Business Review, 84(9), 78.
Emerson, K. T. U., & Murphy, M. C. (2015). A company I can trust? Organizational lay theories moderate stereotype threat for women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(2), 295–307. doi:10.1177/0146167214564969
Erdley, C. A., & Dweck, C. S. (1993). Children’s implicit personality theories as predictors of their social judgments. Child Development, 64(3), 863–878. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb02948.x
Feagin, J. R., & Sikes, M. P. (1994). Living with racism: The black middle-class experience. Boston: Beacon Press.
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878
Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 1–74. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60317-2
Freeman, J. B., & Ambady, N. (2009). Motions of the hand expose the partial and parallel activation of stereotypes. Psychological Science, 20(10), 1183–1188. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02422.x
Freeman, J. B., & Ambady, N. (2011). A dynamic interactive theory of person construal. Psychological Review, 118(2), 247–279. doi:10.1037/a0022327
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Good, C., Aronson, J., & Inzlicht, M. (2003). Improving adolescents’ standardized test performance: An intervention to reduce the effects of stereotype threat. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24(6), 645–662. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2003.09.002
Good, C., Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Why do women opt out? Sense of belonging and women’s representation in mathematics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(4), 700–717. doi:10.1037/a0026659
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4–27. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4
Halevy, N., Bornstein, G., & Sagiv, L. (2008). “In-group love” and “out-group hate” as motives for individual participation in intergroup conflict: A new game paradigm. Psychological Science, 19(4), 405–411. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02100.x
Halevy, N., Weisel, O., & Bornstein, G. (2011). “In-group love” and “out-group hate” in repeated interaction between groups. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 25(2), 188–195. doi:10.1002/bdm.726
Halperin, E., Crisp, R. J., Husnu, S., Trzesniewski, K. H., Dweck, C. S., & Gross, J. J. (2012). Promoting intergroup contact by changing beliefs: Group malleability, intergroup anxiety, and contact motivation. Emotion, 12(6), 1192–1195. doi:10.1037/a0028620
Halperin, E., Russell, A. G., Trzesniewski, K. H., Gross, J. J., & Dweck, C. S. (2011). Promoting the Middle East peace process by changing beliefs about group malleability. Science, 333(6050), 1767–1769. doi:10.1126/science.1202925
Harrell, J. P., Hall, S., & Taliaferro, J. (2003). Physiological responses to racism and discrimination: An assessment of the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 243–248. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.2.243
Harris, L. T., & Fiske, S. T. (2006). Dehumanizing the lowest of the low: Neuroimaging responses to extreme out-groups. Psychological Science, 17(10), 847–853. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01793.x
Haslam, N. (2017). The origins of lay theories: The case of essentialist beliefs. In C. M. Zedelius, B. C. N. Müller, & J. W. Schooler (Eds.), The science of lay theories—How beliefs shape our cognition, behavior, and health. New York, NY: Springer.
Haslam, N., Bastian, B., Bain, P., & Kashima, Y. (2006). Psychological essentialism, implicit theories, and intergroup relations. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9(1), 63–76. doi:10.1177/1368430206059861
Haslam, N., Rothschild, L., & Ernst, D. (2000). Essentialist beliefs about social categories. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 113–127. doi:10.1348/014466600164363
Hong, Y.-Y., Chiu, C.-Y., Dweck, C. S., Lin, D. M.-S., & Wan, W. (1999). Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: A meaning system approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(3), 588–599. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.3.588
Hornstein, H. A. (1978). Promotive tension and prosocial behavior: A Lewinian analysis. In Altruism, sympathy, and helping: Psychological and sociological principles (pp. 177–207).
Hoyt, C. L., & Burnette, J. L. (2013). Gender bias in leader evaluations: Merging implicit theories and role congruity perspectives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(10), 1306–1319. doi:10.1177/0146167213493643
Ito, T. A., Thompson, E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004). Tracking the timecourse of social perception: The effects of racial cues on event-related brain potentials. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(10), 1267–1280. Retrieved from http://psp.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/0146167204264335
Ito, T. A., & Urland, G. R. (2003). Race and gender on the brain: Electrocortical measures of attention to the race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 616–626. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.616
Jamieson, J. P., & Harkins, S. G. (2007). Mere effort and stereotype threat performance effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(4), 544–564. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.4.544
Job, V., Dweck, C. S., & Walton, G. M. (2010). Ego depletion—Is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1686–1693. doi:10.1177/0956797610384745
Karafantis, D. M., & Levy, S. R. (2004). The role of children’s lay theories about the malleability of human attributes in beliefs about and volunteering for disadvantaged groups. Child Development, 75(1), 236–250. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00666.x
Kawakami, K., Dion, K. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1998). Racial prejudice and stereotype activation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(4), 407–416. doi:10.1177/0146167298244007
Keller, J. (2005). In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(4), 686–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.686
Krysan, M. (2000). Prejudice, politics, and public opinion: Understanding the sources of racial policy attitudes. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 135–168. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/223440
Lazare, A. (2004). On apology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Lerner, M. J. (1980). The belief in a just world. In The belief in a just world (pp. 9–30). Boston, MA: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0448-5_2
Leslie, S.-J., Cimpian, A., Meyer, M., & Freeland, E. (2015). Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines. Science, 347(6219), 262–265. doi:10.1126/science.1261375
Levine, M., Prosser, A., Evans, D., & Reicher, S. (2005). Identity and emergency intervention: How social group membership and inclusiveness of group boundaries shape helping behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(4), 443–453. doi:10.1177/0146167204271651
Levontin, L., Halperin, E., & Dweck, C. S. (2013). Implicit theories block negative attributions about a longstanding adversary: The case of Israelis and Arabs. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(4), 670–675. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.02.002
Levy, S. R., Chiu, C.-Y., & Hong, Y.-Y. (2006a). Lay theories and intergroup relations. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9(1), 5–24. doi:10.1177/1368430206059855
Levy, S. R., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). The impact of children’s static versus dynamic conceptions of people on stereotype formation. Child Development, 70(5), 1163–1180. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00085
Levy, S. R., Plaks, J. E., Hong, Y.-Y., Chiu, C.-Y., & Dweck, C. S. (2001). Static versus dynamic theories and the perception of groups: Different routes to different destinations. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(2), 156–168. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0502_6
Levy, S. R., Stroessner, S. J., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Stereotype formation and endorsement: The role of implicit theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1421–1436. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1421
Levy, S. R., West, T. L., Ramirez, L., & Karafantis, D. M. (2006b). The protestant work ethic: A lay theory with dual intergroup implications. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9(1), 95–115. doi:10.1177/1368430206059874
Livingston, R. W., & Drwecki, B. B. (2007). Why are some individuals not racially biased? Susceptibility to affective conditioning predicts nonprejudice toward Blacks. Psychological Science, 18(9), 816–823. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01985.x
Maass, A., Salvi, D., Arcuri, L., & Semin, G. (1989). Language use in intergroup contexts: The linguistic intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 981–993. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.981
Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 93–120. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.93
Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., & Milne, A. B. (1995). The dissection of selection in person perception: Inhibitory processes in social stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(3), 397–407. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.3.397
Macrae, C. N., Hewstone, M., & Griffiths, R. J. (1993). Processing load and memory for stereotype-based information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23(1), 77–87. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420230107
McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modem racism, ambivalence. and the Modem Racism Scale. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination. and racism. (pp. 91–125). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Mendoza-Denton, R., Kahn, K., & Chan, W. (2008). Can fixed views of ability boost performance in the context of favorable stereotypes? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(4), 1187–1193. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.03.005
Migacheva, K., & Tropp, L. R. (2012). Learning orientation as a predictor of positive intergroup contact. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 16(4), 426–444. doi:10.1177/1368430212455854
Moeschberger, S. L., Dixon, D. N., Niens, U., & Cairns, E. (2005). Forgiveness in Northern Ireland: A model for peace in the midst of the “troubles”. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 11(2), 199–214. doi:10.1207/s15327949pac1102_5
Neel, R., & Shapiro, J. R. (2012). Is racial bias malleable? Whites’ lay theories of racial bias predict divergent strategies for interracial interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(1), 101–120. doi:10.1037/a0028237
Pauker, K., Ambady, N., & Apfelbaum, E. P. (2010). Race salience and essentialist thinking in racial stereotype development. Child Development, 81(6), 1799–1813. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01511.x
Pettigrew, T. F. (1959). Regional differences in anti-Negro prejudice. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 59(1), 28.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 751–783. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751
Plaks, J. E., Levy, S. R., & Dweck, C. S. (2009). Lay theories of personality: Cornerstones of meaning in social cognition. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3(6), 1069–1081. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00222.x
Plaks, J. E., Stroessner, S. J., Dweck, C. S., & Sherman, J. W. (2001). Person theories and attention allocation: Preferences for stereotypic versus counterstereotypic information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(6), 876–893. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.876
Plaut, V. C., Thomas, K. M., & Goren, M. J. (2009). Is multiculturalism or color blindness better for minorities? Psychological Science, 20(4), 444–446. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02318.x
Rattan, A., & Ambady, N. (2013). Diversity ideologies and intergroup relations: An examination of colorblindness and multiculturalism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43(1), 12–21. doi:10.1002/ejsp.1892
Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2010). Who confronts prejudice? The role of implicit theories in the motivation to confront prejudice. Psychological Science, 21(7), 952–959. doi:10.1177/0956797610374740
Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2016). What happens after prejudice is experienced in the workplace?. How mindsets affect minorities’ and women’s outlook on future social relations: Manuscript submitted for publication.
Rattan, A., Savani, K., Naidu, N. V. R., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Can everyone become highly intelligent? Cultural differences in and societal consequences of beliefs about the universal potential for intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(5), 787–803. doi:10.1037/a0029263
Richeson, J. A., & Nussbaum, R. J. (2004). The impact of multiculturalism versus color-blindness on racial bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(3), 417–423. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.09.002
Richeson, J. A., & Shelton, J. N. (2007). Negotiating interracial interactions: Costs, consequences, and possibilities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(6), 316–320. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00528.x
Richeson, J. A., & Trawalter, S. (2005). Why do interracial interactions impair executive function? A resource depletion account. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(6), 934–947. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.6.934
Rosenthal, L., & Levy, S. R. (2012). The relation between polyculturalism and intergroup attitudes among racially and ethnically diverse adults. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(1), 1–16. doi:10.1037/a0026490
Rosenthal, L., Levy, S. R., & Moyer, A. (2011). Protestant work ethic’s relation to intergroup and policy attitudes: A meta-analytic review. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(7), 874–885. doi:10.1002/ejsp.832
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 173-220). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Rudman, L. A., & Kilianski, S. E. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(11), 1315–1328. doi:10.1177/0146167200263001
Rydell, R. J., Hugenberg, K., Ray, D., & Mackie, D. M. (2007). Implicit theories about groups and stereotyping: The role of group entitativity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 549–558.
Saguy, T., & Halperin, E. (2014). Exposure to outgroup members criticizing their own group facilitates intergroup openness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(6), 791–802. doi:10.1177/0146167214525475
Sanchez, D. T., Young, D. M., & Pauker, K. (2015). Exposure to racial ambiguity influences lay theories of race. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(4), 382–390. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614562844
Sawyer, P. J., Major, B., Casad, B. J., Townsend, S. S. M., & Mendes, W. B. (2012). Discrimination and the stress response: Psychological and physiological consequences of anticipating prejudice in interethnic interactions. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 1020–1026. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300620
Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(3), 440–452. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.440
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychological Review, 115(2), 336–356. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.336
Shelton, J. N., Richeson, J. A., Salvatore, J., & Hill, D. M. (2006). Silence is not golden: The intrapersonal consequences of not confronting prejudice. In S. Levin & C. Van Laar (Eds.), Stigma and group inequality: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 65–81). New York: Psychology Press. doi:10.4324/9781410617057
Shelton, J. N., Richeson, J. A., & Vorauer, J. D. (2006b). Threatened identities and interethnic interactions. European Review of Social Psychology, 17(1), 321–358. doi:10.1080/10463280601095240
Simon, S., & Hoyt, C. L. (2008). Exploring the gender gap in support for a woman for president. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 8(1), 157–181. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2008.00167.x
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.69.5.797
Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation. New York: Wiley.
Swim, J. K., & Hyers, L. L. (1999). Excuse me—What did you just say?!: Women’s public and private responses to sexist remarks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 68–88. doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1370
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 31–53. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00200
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., Fitzgerald, D. C., & Bylsma, W. H. (2003). African American college students’ experiences with everyday racism: Characteristics of and responses to these incidents. Journal Of Black Psychology, 29(1), 38–67. doi:10.1177/0095798402239228
Taylor, S. E. (1981). A categorization approach to stereotyping. In D. L. Hamilton (Ed.), Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior (pp. 83–114). L. Erlbaum Associates.
Taylor, V. J., & Walton, G. M. (2011). Stereotype threat undermines academic learning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(8), 1055–1067. doi:10.1177/0146167211406506
Tropp, L. R., & Pettigrew, T. F. (2005a). Differential relationships between intergroup contact and affective and cognitive dimensions of prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(8), 1145–1158. doi:10.1177/0146167205274854
Tropp, L. R., & Pettigrew, T. F. (2005b). Relationships between intergroup contact and prejudice among minority and majority status groups. Psychological Science, 16(12), 951–957. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01643.x
Vallacher, R. R., Coleman, P. T., Nowak, A., & Bui-Wrzosinska, L. (2010). Dynamical foundations of intractable conflict: Introduction to the special issue. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 16(2), 113–125. doi:10.1080/10781911003691294
Vescio, T. K., Gervais, S. J., Snyder, M., & Hoover, A. (2005). Power and the creation of patronizing environments: The stereotype-based behaviors of the powerful and their effects on female performance in masculine domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(4), 658–672. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.658
Weber, R., & Crocker, J. (1983). Cognitive processes in the revision of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(5), 961–977. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.961
Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548–573. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548
Weiner, B., Heckhausen, H., & Meyer, W.-U. (1972). Causal ascriptions and achievement behavior: A conceptual analysis of effort and reanalysis of locus of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21(2), 239–248. doi:10.1037/h0032307
Williams, M. J., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2008). Biological conceptions of race and the motivation to cross racial boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6), 1033–1047. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.1033
Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 200–208.
Williams, D. R., & Williams-Morris, R. (2000). Racism and mental health: The African American experience. Ethnicity & Health, 5(3–4), 243–268. doi:10.1080/713667453
Wohl, M. J. A., Cohen-Chen, S., Halperin, E., Caouette, J., Hayes, N., & Hornsey, M. J. (2015). Belief in the malleability of groups strengthens the tenuous link between a collective apology and intergroup forgiveness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(5), 714–725. doi:10.1177/0146167215576721
Wolfe, C. T., & Spencer, S. J. (1996). Stereotypes and prejudice. American Behavioral Scientist, 40(2), 176–185.
Woodzicka, J. A., & LaFrance, M. (2001). Real versus imagined gender harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 15–30. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00199
Yeager, D. S., Miu, A. S., Powers, J., & Dweck, C. S. (2013). Implicit theories of personality and attributions of hostile intent: A meta-analysis, an experiment, and a longitudinal intervention. Child Development, 84(5), 1651–1667. doi:10.1111/cdev.12062
Yeager, D. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., Tirri, K., Nokelainen, P., & Dweck, C. S. (2011). Adolescents’ implicit theories predict desire for vengeance after peer conflicts: Correlational and experimental evidence. Developmental Psychology, 47(4), 1090–1107. doi:10.1037/a0023769
Yzerbyt, V., Rocher, S., & Schadron, G. (1997). Stereotypes as explanations: A subjective essentialistic view of group perception. In R. Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & S. A. Haslam (Eds.), The social psychology of stereotyping and group life (pp. 20–50). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rattan, A., Georgeac, O. (2017). Mindsets About Malleability and Intergroup Relations. In: Zedelius, C., Müller, B., Schooler, J. (eds) The Science of Lay Theories. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57306-9_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57306-9_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-57305-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-57306-9
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)