Abstract
The Earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field constitute radiation shields which absorb and deflect high-energy radiation from the solar wind and cosmic rays, protecting the critical DNA and RNA biomolecules which form the basis of life from “genetic damage (Lomax 2013). The mining of Uranium, enrichment of Uranium-235 and the production of the artificial Plutonium-238 and 240 isotopes have opened a source of radioactive radiation released to the Earth’s atmosphere, water and soil, as recorded as a distinct anthropogenic radioactive layer in the deep oceans. Nuclear tests in remote parts of the Earth have already commenced a nuclear war against indigenous people, including in Japan, Marshall Islands, Novaya Zemlya, Kazakhstan, Polynesia and the Sahara and Gobi Deserts. Despite the above, proponents of nuclear energy, assuming responsible human handling of fissile materials in the future, propose nuclear energy replaces carbon-based combustion systems. However, the fallibility of the nuclear industry has already been demonstrated by major nuclear accidents, such as in Chernobyl and Fukushima, as well as radioactive spills. Nuclear energy facilities have facilitated lateral proliferation of nuclear weapons. Extrapolating from ~500 megaton tests and release of plutonium from satellite accident, radiation levels from a 1000 and a 10,000 megaton war would reach a scale of 4.2 × 1011 Curies and 4.2 × 1012 Curies, respectively. Consequent proliferation of radiation hot spots around the world and triggered nuclear winter conditions arising from global smoke and soot released from burnt cities would result in a loss of life on the scale of more than one billion. The longer term consequences of a nuclear conflict are difficult to evaluate. Given the history of the atomic age, H. sapiens can hardly be trusted to limit the destructive potential of the splitting of the atom.
The Moon’s Eulogy
Exiled from mother Earth’s womb
To outer space, the solar wind tomb
I orbit my Gondwana home
Where large green lizards used to roam
Now I watch white sheets of ice
Snaking glaciers’ deep crevice
Mammoths graze the grassy steppes
From the tall trees descend some apes.
Vast floods encroach Mount Ararat
Sweeps a big arc, all its ports shut
Receding water bare rich soil
Adam’s sons till harvest’s toil
Slave armies march carting big stones
Erect colossus, the Gods to atone
Launch death orgies scorch the fields
Returning warriors on shields
Tumour celled cancer cities spreads
Poison water, the green fades
In burning skies vanished ozone
Red burning eyes, life’s former zone
Missiles glow in orbit’s decay
I shed a tear to Gaea’s last day
Bidding adieu to Prometheus story
In surrender to Fates and betrayal of glory
‘The splitting of the atom has changed everything
Save man’s way of thinking
And thus we drift toward unparalleled catastrophes’.
Albert Einstein (http://investmentwatchblog.com/the-splitting-of-the-atom-changed-everything-save-mans-mode-of-thinking-thus-we-drift-towards-unparalleled-catastrophe-einstein/)
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
- 2.
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
- 6.
- 7.
- 8.
- 9.
- 10.
- 11.
- 12.
- 13.
- 14.
Units of ionizing radiation are expressed in terms of absorbed radiation (Gray, Rad), emitted radiation (Curie, Becquerel) and calibrated biological effects of radiation (Sievert, Rem) The half-life values of radioactive isotopes range from a few days, i.e. Iodine (131I) 8.02 days, to tens of thousands of years i.e. Plutonium (239Pu) 24,100 years.
- 15.
- 16.
- 17.
- 18.
- 19.
The release and persistence of radioactive anthropogenic nuclides (http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/395/1/265.abstract).
- 20.
(1 Curie =37x109 Becquerel) (1 Becquerel = activity where one nucleus decays in a second). (Natural radiation level - 100 Bq/kg or 7000 Bq).
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
- 24.
- 25.
- 26.
Catastrophic Climatic Consequences of Nuclear Conflict. http://www.nucleardarkness.org/include/nucleardarkness/files/pdf/INESAP_2008_catastrophic_climatic_consequences_of_nuclear_conflict.pdf
- 27.
- 28.
- 29.
- 30.
- 31.
- 32.
- 33.
- 34.
- 35.
- 36.
- 37.
- 38.
- 39.
- 40.
- 41.
- 42.
- 43.
- 44.
The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organisation (CTBTO) https://www.ctbto.org/nuclear-testing/
- 45.
- 46.
- 47.
- 48.
- 49.
- 50.
- 51.
- 52.
- 53.
- 54.
- 55.
- 56.
- 57.
- 58.
- 59.
- 60.
- 61.
- 62.
- 63.
- 64.
- 65.
- 66.
- 67.
- 68.
- 69.
- 70.
- 71.
- 72.
- 73.
file:///C:/Users/Andrew/Downloads/irc97_15%20(9).pdf
- 74.
- 75.
- 76.
- 77.
- 78.
- 79.
- 80.
- 81.
- 82.
- 83.
- 84.
- 85.
- 86.
- 87.
- 88.
- 89.
- 90.
- 91.
- 92.
- 93.
- 94.
- 95.
- 96.
- 97.
- 98.
- 99.
- 100.
- 101.
- 102.
- 103.
- 104.
- 105.
- 106.
- 107.
- 108.
References
Aarkrog A (1998) A retrospect of anthropogenic radioactivity in the global marine environment. Radiat Prot Dosimetry 75(1–4):23–31. Oxford Academic Press, Oxford
Aarkrog A (2003) Input of anthropogenic radionuclides into the World Ocean. Deep-Sea Res II Top Stud Oceanogr 50:2597–2606
Bauer S (2005) Radiation exposure due to local fallout from Soviet atmospheric nuclear weapons testing in Kazakhstan: solid cancer mortality in the Semipalatinsk historical cohort 1960–1999. Radiat Res 164:409–419
Bordner AS (2016) Measurement of background gamma radiation in the northern Marshall Islands. Proc Natl Acad Sci 113(25):6833–6838
Buesseler KO (1997) The isotopic signature of fallout in the North Pacific. J Environ Radioact 36:69–83
Crutzen PJ, Birks JW (1982) The atmosphere after a nuclear war: twilight at noon. Ambio 11(2/3):114–125
CTBTO (Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty) (2012) https://www.ctbto.org/specials/who-we-are/
Cutter GA et al (1979) Deposition and accumulation of plutonium isotopes in Antarctica. Nature 279:628–629
Dong W, Zheng J, Guo Q, Yamada M, Pan S (2010) Characterization of plutonium in deep-sea sediments of the Sulu and South China Seas. J Environ Radioact 8:622–629
Evans G, Ogilvie-White T, Ramesh T (2015) Nuclear weapons the state of play 2015. Australian National University, Canberra
Global Nuclear Arsenals (2009) Approximately 23,335 weapons with ~ 6400 MT (megatons) yield. http://www.nucleardarkness.org/include/nucleardarkness/files/global_nuclear_arsenal_in_number_2009.pdf
Gould J (1990) Wonderful life: the burgess shale and the nature of history. Angus and Robertson, Sydney, p 347
Guosheng Y et al (2015) Plutonium concentration and isotopic ratio in soil samples from central-eastern Japan collected around the 1970s. Scientific reports US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. Sci Rep 5:9636
Hancock JJ (2014) The release and persistence of radioactive anthropogenic nuclides. Geol Soc Lond 395:265–281
Hardy EP et al (1973) Global inventory and Distribution of fallout plutonium. Nature 241:444–445
Hatch H et al (2005) The Chernobyl disaster: cancer following the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear plant. Epidemiol Rev 27(1):56–66
Hyperphysics (2016) Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/NucEne/bomb.html
IEER (Institute for Energy and Environmental Research) (1991) Radioactive heaven and Earth. http://ieer.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/1991/06/RadioactiveHeavenEarth1991.pdf
Ivanov A (1996) 1950’s Soviet A-bomb tests still claim victims. Albion Monitor/News. http://www.albionmonitor.com/9611a/russia1950nuke.html
Johnston R (2008) Multi-megaton tests: the largest Nuclear tests. http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/tests/multimegtests.html
Josefsson D (1998) Anthropogenic radionuclides in the Arctic Ocean – Distribution and pathways. Lund University. http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/29/039/29039179.pdf
Koide H (2013) Japan Professor: I believe airborne release of cesium-137 from Fukushima equals 400 to 500 Hiroshima nuclear bombs — another 400 to 500 bombs worth has already flowed into Pacific Ocean. ENE news, march 13th, 2013
Lee J (2013) Ten years of Fukushima radiation crossing the Pacific Ocean. CVnews 22 October. https://climateviewer.com/2013/10/22/ten-years-of-fukushima-radiation-crossing-the-pacificocean/# prettyPhoto
Leitner K (2004) WHO’s involvement in the Chernobyl accident: past and present. http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/Overview_WHO_past_involvement.pdf
Lomax ME (2013) Biological consequences of radiation-induced DNA damage: relevance to radiotherapy. Clin Oncol 25(10):578–585
Luisa C (2011) Fukushima radioactive cesium leaks ‘equal 168 Hiroshimas. Natural News. http:// www.naturalnews.com/033460_Fukushima_Hiroshima.html
Meralli Z (2009) Did China’s nuclear tests kill thousands and doom future generations? Sci Am. July 2009. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/did-chinas-nuclear-tests/
McVicker C (1954) ICE case studies, Novaya Zemlya. http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/novalya.htm
Miklós V (2013) The tragic story of the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site. http://io9.gizmodo.com/5988266/the-tragic-story-of-the-semipalatinsk-nuclear-test-site
NEI (Nuclear Energy Institute) (2015) Fact sheets. https:// www.nei.org/master-document-folder/ backgrounders/fact-sheets/chernobyl-accident-and-its-consequences
Olivier S et al (2004) Plutonium from global fallout recorded in an ice Core from the Belukha glacier, Siberian Altai. Environ Sci Technol 38(24):6507–6512
Pearce F (2015) Shocking state of world’s riskiest nuclear waste site. New Scientist. 21 January 2015. https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22530053-800-shocking-state-of-worldsriskiest-nuclear-waste-site/
Phillips AF (1998/2017) 20 mishaps that might have started accidental nuclear war. Nuclear Files Org. http://nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/accidents/20-mishaps-maybe-caused-nuclear-war.htm
Ploughshares (2016) World Nuclear Weapon Stockpile. http://www.ploughshares.org/world-nuclear-stockpile-report
Rabi T (2012) The nuclear disaster of Kyshtym 1957 and the politics of the cold war. Arcadia – Environment and Society Portal. http://www.environmentandsociety.org/arcadia/nuclear-disaster-kyshtym-1957-and-politics-cold-war
RADNET (2016) (since 1996) Information about source points of anthropogenic radioactivity. An information resource for persons interested in the public safety consequences and radio-ecological impact of nuclear accidents and industries. http://www.davistownmuseum.org/cbm/Rad14.html
Ruff TA (2015) The humanitarian impact and implications of nuclear test explosions in the Pacific region. Int Rev Red Cross 97(899):775–813
Ryall J (2011) New radiation hotspots prompt Japan to extend monitoring. The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/8721630/New-radiation-hotspots-prompt-Japan-to-extend-monitoring.html
Simone D et al (1979) The effects of nuclear war. Nuclear War Effects Project Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 79–600080. http://atomicarchive.com/Docs/pdfs/7906.pdf
Simon SL et al (2010) Radiation doses and cancer risks in the Marshall islands associated with exposure to radioactive fallout from Bikini and Enewetak nuclear weapons tests: summary. Health Phys 99(2):105–123
Sjoeblom K Linsley GS (1993) International Arctic Seas Assessment Project (IASAP). http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/28/041/28041350.pdf
Smith JN et al (2015) Arrival of the Fukushima radioactivity plume in North American continental waters. Proc Natl Acad Sci 112(5):1310–1315
Sumner T (2016) Bikini Atoll radiation levels remain alarmingly high. Sci News 190(1):16
The Chernobyl Forum (2003–2005) Chernobyl’s legacy: health, environmental and socio-economic impacts and recommendations to the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/chernobyl.pdf
The Guardian (2014) Marshall Islands Bikini Atoll nuclear test: 60 years later and islands still unliveable. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/02/bikini-atoll-nuclear-test-60-years
Turco RP et al (1983) Nuclear winter: global consequences of multiple nuclear explosions. Science 222:1283–1292
UK Meteorological Office (2011) 25 years on from Chernobyl. https://blog.metoffice.gov.uk/2011/04/26/25-years-on-from-chernobyl/
World Nuclear Association (2012) Radiation and life. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-
World Nuclear Association (2017). http://www.world-nuclear.org/
World Nuclear Weapon Stockpile. http://www.ploughshares.org/world-nuclear-stockpile-report
Wu J et al (2014) Isotopic composition and Distribution of plutonium in Northern South China Sea sediments revealed continuous release and transport of Pu from the Marshall Islands. Environ Sci Technol 48(6):3136–3144
Yablokov AV, Nesterenko VB (2009) Chernobyl contamination through time and space. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20002040
Zheng J et al (2012) Isotopic evidence of plutonium release into the environment from the Fukushima DNPP accident. Scientific Reports 2, Article number: 304. http://www.nature.com/articles/srep00304
Zheng J et al (2013) Release of plutonium isotopes into the environment from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident: what is known and what needs to be known. Environ Sci Technol 47(17):9584–9595
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Glikson, A.Y. (2017). The Breach in the Earth’s Radiation Shield. In: The Plutocene: Blueprints for a Post-Anthropocene Greenhouse Earth. Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences, vol 13. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57237-6_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57237-6_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-57236-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-57237-6
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)