Covenant Consent

Benedict, James L.

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56400-5_5

James L. Benedict⁷

Part of the book series: International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine ((LIME,volume 73))

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Abstract

This chapter will argue for the adaptation of the consent process for vascularized composite allotransplantation research involving the transplant of faces and upper extremities. This adaptation of the consent process will reflect the particular nature of VCA as a form of therapeutic research which takes place over a long period of time, exposes the vulnerable subject to great risks and burdens, requires intensive long-term active participation of the recipient and raises the issue of the recipient’s dignity and vulnerability in a special way. It will incorporate several of the insights offered by various critics of the current standard approach to consent. Finally, at the heart of this adaptation will be a reimagining of consent in covenantal terms. This will involve reimagining the researcher/subject and physician/patient relationship. In place of the more typical professional distance and emotional detachment on the part of researchers or physicians, covenant consent will require “compassionate solidarity .”

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Notes

1.
K.V. Ravindra et al., “Composite Tissue Transplantation: A Rapidly Advancing Field,” Transplantation Proceedings 40, no. 5 (2008): 1237–1248; Maria Siemionow, Bahar Bassiri Gharb and Antonio Rampazzo, “Successes and Lessons Learned After More Than a Decade of Upper Extremity and Face Transplantation,” Current Opinion in Organ Transplantation 18, no. 6 (2013): 633–639; J.R. Diaz-Siso et al., “Vascularized Composite Tissue Allotransplantation—State of the Art,” Clinical Transplantation, 27, no. 3 (2013): 330–337.
2.
Ricardo Londono, Vijay S. Gorantla, and Stephen F. Badylak, “Emerging Implications for Extracellular Matrix-based Technologies in Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation,” Stem Cells International, epub (2015), doi:10.1155/2016/1541823; Bohdan Pomahac, Ryan M. Gobble and Stefan Schneeberger, “Facial and Hand Allotransplantation,” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, epub ahead of print, accessed 22 Mar. 2014 at http://perspectivesinmedicine.org/content/early/2014/01/28/cshperspect.a015651.full.pdf+html.
3.
A.A. Bertrand et al., “Changing Attitudes Toward Hand Allotransplantation Among North American Hand Surgeons,” Annals of Plastic Surgery May 2014 Supplement: S55–S60; Gaby Doumit et al., “Pediatric Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation,” Annals of Plastic Surgery, epub ahead of print, July 2014; Jacques Balayla has joined his voice to others calling for public funding of uterine transplantation. See “Public Funding for Uterine Transplantation,” JME Online First, doi:10.1136/medethics-2015-103232.
4.
R. Huxtable and J. Woodley, “Gaining Face or Losing Face? Framing the Debate on Face Transplants,” Bioethics 19 (2005): 510–513; Carson Strong, “Should We Be Putting a Good Face on Facial Transplantation?” American Journal of Bioethics 4, no. 3 (2004): 13.
5.
K. Shanmugarajah, S. Hettiaratchy and Peter E.M. Butler, “Facial Transplantation,” Current Opinion in Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 20, no. 4 (2012): 294–295; Jaime T. Shores, Joseph E. Imbriglia, and W.P. Andrew Lee, “The Current State of Hand Transplantation,” Journal of Hand Surgery 36A (November 2011): 1864–1865; T. Hautz et al., “World Experience After More Than A Decade of Clinical Hand Transplantation: Update on the Innsbruck Program,” Hand Clinics 27 (2011): 428; Warren C. Breidenbach et al., “Outcomes of the First Two American Hand Transplants at 8 and 6 Years Posttransplant,” Journal of Hand Surgery, 33A (September 2008): 1039; G. Brandacher et al., “The Innsbruck Hand Transplant Program: Update at 8 Years After the First Transplant,” Transplantation Proceedings 41 (2009): 493.
6.
Michael Hurlburt, “Facial Transplantation: Understanding the Interests of Patients,” Medical Science Monitor 12, no. 8 (2007): RA149; L. Kallianen, “Supporting Facial Transplantation with the Pillars of Bioethics,” Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery 26, no. 8 (2010): 548; Jeff Chang and David W. Mathes, “Ethical, Financial, and Policy Considerations in Hand Transplantation,” Hand Clinics 27, no. 4 (2011): 558; Katrina A. Bramstedt, “Informed Consent for Facial Transplantation,” in The Know-How of Face Transplantation, ed. by Maria Siemionow, (New York: Springer, 2011), 255.
7.
See especially Y.M. Barilan, “Respect for Personal Autonomy, Human Dignity, and the Problems of Self-Directedness and Botched Autonomy,” Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 36, no. 5 (2011): 496–515; Rebecca Kukla, “Communicating Consent,” Hastings Center Report 39, no. 3 (2009): 45–47 and “Conscientious Autonomy: Displacing Decisions in Health Care,” Hastings Center Report 35, no. 2 (2005): 34–44; Robert Veatch, Patient, Heal Thyself: How the New Medicine Puts The Patient in Charge, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009; Grzegorz Mazur, Informed Consent, Proxy Consent, and Catholic Bioethics for the Good Of The Subject, Dordrecht: Springer, 2012; Benjamin Moulton and Jaime S. King, “Aligning Ethics With Medical Decision-Making: The Quest For Informed Patient Choice,” The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 38, no. 1 (2010): 85–97; Alisdair MacLean, Autonomy, Informed Consent and Medical Law: A Relational Challenge, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009; P. Alderson and C. Goodey, “Theories in Health Care and Research: Theories of Consent,” BMJ 317, no. 7168 (1998): 1313–1315; for a legal perspective, see Thaddeus Mason Pope and Melinda Hexum, “Legal Briefing: Shared Decision Making and Patient Decision Aids,” Journal of Clinical Ethics 24, no. 1 (2013): 70.
8.
Jack Coulehan, “Compassionate Solidarity: Suffering, Poetry, and Medicine,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 52, no. 4 (Autumn 2009): 597–598.
9.
Karen Lebacqz, “The Virtuous Patient,” in Virtue and Medicine: Explorations in the Character of Medicine, ed. by Earl E. Shelp, Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1985: 282.
10.
A more traditional approach to patient responsibilities in research is found in David B. Resnik and Elizabeth Ness, “Participants’ Responsibilities in Clinical Research,” Journal of Medical Ethics 38, no. 12 (2012): 746–750. What is proposed as part of covenant consent would not exclude any of the responsibilities they list, but would approach those responsibilities from a different perspective.
11.
Tineke A. Abma et al., “Inter-ethics: Towards an Interactive and Interdependent Bioethics,” Bioethics 24, no. 5 (2010): 250.
12.
Kukla, “Conscientious Autonomy,” 35.
13.
Robert M. Veatch, Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2012: 64–66; Neil C. Manson and Onora O’Neill, Rethinking Informed Consent in Bioethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007: 2–4. For the text of the Code, see The Nuremberg Code. Accessed December 7, 2012. http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/archive/nurcode.html.
14.
Henry K. Beecher, “Ethics and Clinical Research,” The New England Journal of Medicine 274, no. 24 (1966): 1354–1360. See also Jay Katz, “‘Ethics and Clinical Research’ Revisited: A Tribute to Henry Beecher,” Hastings Center Report 23 (1993): 31–39 and Franklin G. Miller, “Homage to Henry Beecher (1904–1976),” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 55, no. 2 (2012): 218–220; Giselle Corbie-Smith, “The Continuing Legacy of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Considerations for Clinical Investigation,” The American Journal of the Medical Sciences 317 (1999): 5–8; John J. Gillon, “More Subject and Less Human: The Pain-Filled Journey of Human Subjects Protection… And Some Differences in the United States and the European Union,” Medical Law International 7 (2005): 65–66.
15.
Steven Joffe and Robert D. Truog, “Consent to Medical Care: The Importance of Fiduciary Context,” in The Ethics of Consent, ed. by Miller and Wertheimer, 348; Janet L. Dolgin, “The Legal Development of the Informed Consent Doctrine: Past and Present,” Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 19 (2010): 98–99; Janet L. Dolgin and Lois L. Shepherd, Bioethics and the Law, New York: Aspen Publishers, 2005: 52–58.
16.
Nan D. Hunter, “Rights Talk and Patient Subjectivity: The Role of Autonomy, Equality and Participation Norms,” Wake Forest Law Review 45 (2010): 101; Dolgin, 99; Robert D. Truog, “Patients and Doctors—The Evolution of a Relationship,” The New England Journal of Medicine 366, no. 7 (2012): 581.
17.
Salgo v. Leland Stanford Jr. University Board of Trustees.
18.
Dafydd Loughran, “Surgical Consent: the World’s Largest Chinese Whisper? A Review of Current Surgical Consent Practices,” Journal of Medical Ethics Published Online First; accessed September 28, 2014, doi:10.1136/medethics-2013-101931.
19.
Marko Jukic et al., “Physicians overestimate patients’ knowledge of the process of informed consent: a cross-sectional study,” Medicinski Glasnik 8, no. 1 (2011): 39–45.
20.
A. Mulley, C. Trimble and G. Elwyn, Patients’ Preferences Matter: Stop the Silent Misdiagnosis, London: King’s Fund, 2012: 13–14.
21.
Constantine A. Mathous et al., “Informed Consent for Medical Procedures,” Chest 124, no. 5 (2003): 1978–1984.
22.
Wouter K.G. Leclercq et al., “A Survey of the Current Practice of the Informed Consent Process in General Surgery in the Netherlands,” Patient Safety in Surgery 7, no. 4 (2013). See also Leclercq et al., “A Review of Surgical Informed Consent: Past, Present, and Future. A Quest to Help Patients Make Better Decisions,” World Journal of Surgery, 34 (2010): 1406–1415.
23.
Ulrike M. Stamer et al., “Ethical Procedures and Patient Consent Differ in Europe,” European Journal of Anesthesiology 32 (2015): 126–131.
24.
Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics 6th Edition, 107–110; 135–140.
25.
Maria De Lourdes Levy, Victor Larcher and Ronald Kurz, “Informed Consent/Assent in Children: Statement of the Ethics Working Group of the Confederation of European Specialists in Paediatrics,” European Journal of Pediatrics 162 (2003): 629; K. Jane Lee et al., “Assent for Treatment: Clinician Knowledge, Attitudes and Practice,” Pediatrics 118 (2006): 723–724; Paul Baines, “Assent for Children’s Participation in Research is Incoherent and Wrong,” Archives of Disease in Childhood 96 (2011): 960–962; Susan Slaughter et al., “Consent and Assent to Participate in Research From People with Dementia,” Nursing Ethics 14, no. 1 (2007): 32–33; Statement of the Alzheimer’s Association on Protection of Participants in Research, Accessed April 4, 2013. http://www.alz.org/about_us_statements.asp.
26.
Pope and Hexum, “Legal Briefing: Shared Decision Making and Patient Decision Aids,” 70–73.
27.
Kristen J. Prentice et al., “Maintaining Informed Consent Validity During Lengthy Research Protocols,” IRB: Ethics and Human Research 29, no. 6 (2007): 1–6.
28.
Eline M. Bunnik, A. Cecile J.W. Janssens, and Maartje H.N. Schermer, “A Tiered-Layered-Staged Model for Informed Consent in Personal Genome Testing,” European Journal of Human Genetics (2012): 1–6; A.L. Angiolillo et al., “Staged Informed Consent for a Randomized Clinical Trial in Childhood Leukemia: Impact on the Consent Process,” Pediatric Blood Cancer 42 (2004): 433–437; P. Allmark and S. Mason, “Improving the Quality of Consent to Randomised Controlled Trials by Using Continuous Consent and Clinician Training in the Consent Process,” Journal of Medical Ethics 32, no. 8 (2006): 439–443.
29.
Gail E. Henderson, “Is Informed Consent Broken?” The American Journal of the Medical Sciences 342, no. 4 (2011): 267–269. See also Daniel K. Sokol, “Let’s Stop Consenting Patients,” BMJ Published Online First; accessed September 27, 2014, doi:10.1136/bmj.g2192.
30.
Leclercq et al., “A Review,” 1406; 1411; Leclercq et al., “A Survey”; Mathous et al., 1980–1981; Jukic et al., 43–44.
31.
Manthous et al. 1982, notes that the Joint Commission does not list what procedures require informed consent, nor are state statutes much help. Jukic et al., 43; Loughran, “Surgical Consent.” Leclercq et al., “A Review,” notes that physicians in the Netherlands are not strictly required to obtain written consent, 1410.
32.
Kukla “Communicating Consent,” 45–47.
33.
The Nuremberg Code. Accessed December 7, 2012. http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/archive/nurcode.html.
34.
Beecher, “Ethics and Clinical Research,” 1354–1360; Corbie-Smith, 5–8; Gillon, “More Subject and Less Human,” 65–66.
35.
Jonathan D. Moreno, Arthur L. Caplan, and Paul Root Wolpe, “Informed Consent,” Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics, v. 2 (San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., 1998), 692–693.
36.
Albert R. Jonsen, “On the Origins and Future of the Belmont Report,” in Belmont Revisited: Ethical Principles for Research with Human Subjects, ed. by James F. Childress, Eric M. Meslin and Harold T. Shapiro, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2005: 3.
37.
See The Belmont Report, accessed December 7, 2012. http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/belmont.html.
38.
See Albert R. Jonsen, “On the Origins and Future of the Belmont Report,” and Tom L. Beauchamp, “The Origins and Evolution of the Belmont Report,” in Belmont Revisited, 3–11 and 12–26.
39.
Joffe and Truog, 348.
40.
Dolgin, 98–99.
41.
Dolgin, 100–101.
42.
Thaddeus Mason Pope, “Legal Briefing: Informed Consent,” The Journal of Clinical Ethics 21, no. 1 (2010): 72; Thaddeus Mason Pope and Melinda Hexum, “Legal Briefing: Informed Consent in the Clinical Context,” The Journal of Clinical Ethics 25, no. 2 (2014): 153.
43.
That first edition appeared in 1977.
44.
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45.
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46.
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47.
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48.
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49.
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50.
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51.
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52.
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53.
Gert, Culver and Clouser, 99–128 and 191–238.
54.
Veatch, Patient, Heal Thyself, 33–42; 57-6491-110 and 209–218.
55.
Manson and O’Neill, 78.
56.
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57.
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58.
Kukla, “Conscientious Autonomy,” 38.
59.
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60.
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61.
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62.
Barilan, “Informed Consent: Between Waiver and Excellence,” 94.
63.
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64.
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65.
Barilan, “Informed Consent: Between Waiver and Excellence,” 21–22.
66.
Barilan, “Respect for Personal Autonomy,” 497.
67.
Barilan, “Respect for Personal Autonomy,” 497.
68.
Barilan, “Respect for Personal Autonomy,” 499. Compare Dickenson and Widdershoven, 118, where they describe autonomy as “moral self-development” by means of “dialogue.”
69.
Barilan, “Respect for Personal Autonomy,” 512.
70.
Barilan, “Respect for Personal Autonomy,” 512.
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72.
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73.
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74.
Donna Dickenson and Guy Widdershoven have suggested that inadequacy of consent played a role in the failure of the first limb transplant at Lyon. See “Ethical Issues in Limb Transplants,” Bioethics 15, no. 2 (2001): 117.
75.
T. Hautz et al., “How Reconstructive Transplantation is Different from Organ Transplantation—and How It Is Not,” Transplant Proceedings 43, no. 9 (2011): 3507–3509; Cavadas, Pedro C., Javier Ibanez, and Alessandro Thione, “Secondary Surgery for Functional Improvement After Hand Transplantation,” Annals of Plastic Surgery 67, no. 4 (2011): 421–422; Peter Morris, Andrew Bradley, Len Doyal, Michael Earley, Patricia Hagen, Martin Milling, and Nichola Rumsey, “Face Transplantation: A Review of the Technical, Immunological, Psychological and Clinical Issues with Recommendations for Good Practice,” Transplantation 83, no. 2 (2007): 109–128.
76.
G.J. Agich and Maria Siemionow, “Until They Have Faces: The Ethics of Facial Allograft Transplantation,” Journal of Medical Ethics 31, no. 12 (2005): 707–709.
77.
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78.
Shanmugarajah, Hettiaratchy, and Butler, 296; L. Lantieri, “Face Transplant: A paradigm change in facial reconstruction,” Journal of Craniofacial Surgery 23, no. 1 (2012): 253.
79.
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80.
Jaimie T. Shores, Joseph E. Imbriglia, and W.P. Andrew Lee, “The Current State of Hand Transplantation,” The Journal of Hand Surgery 36, no. 11 (2011): 1863–1864; Siemionow, Gharb, and Rampazzo, 634; Shanmugarajah, Hettiaratchy, and Butler, 294–295.
81.
Martin Kumnig, Sheila G. Jowsey and Andrea F. DiMartini, “Psychological Aspects of Hand Transplantation,” Current Opinion in Organ Transplantation 19, no. 2 (2014): 189–190.
82.
Pomahac, Gobble and Schneeberger. Accessed March 22, 2014. http://perspectivesinmedicine.org/content/early/2014/01/28/cshperspect.a015651.full.pdf+html.
83.
Evans, 154; Kumnig, Jowsey and DiMartini, 189–193; B. Lengele, 508; Kathy L. Coffman and Maria Z. Siemionow, “Ethics of Facial Transplantation Revisited,” Current Opinion in Organ Transplantation 19 (2014): 184.
84.
B. Lengele et al., “Facing Up is an Act of Dignity: Lessons in Elegance Addressed to the Polemicists of the First Human Face Transplant,” Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Journal 120, no. 3 (2007): 803; V.C. Lees and S.J. McCabe, “The Rationale for Hand Transplantation,” Transplantation 74, no. 6(2002): 750; Linda A. Evans, “Experiences of Healthcare Team Members Involved in Facial Transplant Surgery and Patient Care,” Nursing Research 62, no. 6 (2013): 379.
85.
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86.
Susumu Tamai, “History of Microsurgery,” Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 124 (2009): e290–e291; Wilhemi et al., 538.
87.
Pedro C. Cavadas, “Salvage of Replanted Upper Extremities with Major Soft-Tissue Complications,” Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery 60 (2007): 769–775.
88.
Ganguli-Mitra and Biller-Andorno, 241; Eileen Bradbury, “Meeting the Psychological Needs of Patients with Facial Disfigurement,” British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 50 (2012): 193; 195; Frederik Svenaeus, “Organ Transplantation and Personal Identity: How Does Loss and Change of Organs Affect the Self?” Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 37 (2012): 155; Rumsey, 22–23; Strong, 13.
89.
Philip J. Nickel, “Vulnerable Populations in Research: The Case of the Seriously Ill,” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 27 (2006): 256.
90.
Agamoni Ganguli-Mitra, and Nikola Biller-Andorno, “Vulnerability in Healthcare and Research Ethics,” In The SAGE Handbook of Health Care Ethics. London: SAGE Publications, 2011: 240; Wendy Rogers, Catriona Mackenzie, and Susan Dodds, “Why Bioethics Needs a Concept of Vulnerability,” International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics 5, no. 2 (2012): 15.
91.
Brooke M. Lamparello et al., “Face Time: Educating Face Transplant Candidates,” Eplasty 13 (2013): 284.
92.
Ganguli-Mitra and Biller-Andorno, 240–241.
93.
Samia A. Hurst, “Vulnerability in Research and Health Care: Describing the Elephant in the Room?” Bioethics 22:4 (2008): 193.
94.
Nickel, 256; Nichola Rumsey, “Psychological Aspects of Face Transplantation: Read the Small Print Carefully,” The American Journal of Bioethics 4, no. 3 (2004): 22–23; Bradbury, 194.
95.
David P. Schenk, “Ethical Considerations in the Treatment of Head and Neck Cancer,” Cancer Control 9, no. 5 (2002): 411; Strong, 13; Rumsey, 22–23; Svenaeus, 144; Bradbury, 193–196; Margaretha Strandmark K., “Ill Health is Powerlessness: A Phenomenological Study about Worthlessness, Limitations and Suffering,” Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences 18 (2004): 142.
96.
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97.
Bradbury, 195.
98.
Lees and McCabe, 750–751; Samuel Taylor-Alexander, “Bioethics in the Making: ‘Ideal Patients’ and the Beginnings of Face Transplant Surgery in Mexico,” Science as Culture 23, no. 1 (2014): 27–50; L. Evans, “Experiences of Health Care Team,” Nursing Research, 379.
99.
Evans, “Experiences of Health Team Members,” 379–380; Lees and McCabe, 750–751.
100.
Hurst, 201.
101.
The Principle of Respect for Human Vulnerability and Personal Integrity: Report of the International Bioethics Committee: 22; 33. Accessed January 25, 2014. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002194/219494E.pdf.
102.
S.A.M. McLean, “Respect for Human Vulnerability and Personal Integrity,” Handbook of Global Bioethics, ed. by H.A.M.J. ten Have and Bert Gordijn, Dordrecht: Springer Science & Business, 2014: 112.
103.
Strandmark K., 141–142; Perpich, 184; 106; Schenk, 413–414; Bradbury, 195–196; Hurst, 196–197; McLean, 106; Rogers, Mackenzie, and Dodds, 24–26; Margaret Meek Lange, Wendy Rogers and Susan Dodds, “Vulnerability in Research Ethics: A Way Forward,” Bioethics 27, no. 6 (2013): 337.
104.
McLean, 110.
105.
Marianna Fotaki, “Is Patient Choice the Future of Health Care Systems?” International Journal of Health Policy and Management 1, no. 2 (2013): 122.
106.
Gert, Culver and Clouser, 89; Terenia Brosnam and Michael Perry, “‘Informed’ Consent in Adult Patients: Can We Achieve a Gold Standard?” British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 47 (2009): 186.
107.
Tom L. Beauchamp, “Autonomy and Consent,” in The Ethics of Consent: Theory and Practice, ed. by Franklin G. Miller and Alan Wertheimer, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 57–58; Steven Joffe and Robert D. Truog, “Consent to Medical Care: The Importance of Fiduciary Context,” in Miller and Wertheimer, 350.
108.
Franklin G. Miller and Alan Wertheimer, “Preface to a Theory of Consent Transactions: Beyond Valid Consent,” in Miller and Wertheimer, 79–106; Franklin G. Miller and Alan Wertheimer, “The Fair Transaction Model,” 201–218; Alan Wertheimer, “Voluntary Consent: Why A Value-Neutral Concept Won’t Work,” Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 37, no. 3 (June 2012): 4.
109.
Manson and O’Neill, 68–96.
110.
Veatch, Patient, Heal Thyself, 91–110.
111.
Jaime S. King and Benjamin Moulton, “Rethinking Informed Consent: The Case for Shared Medical Decision-Making,” American Journal of Law and Medicine 32 (2006): 429–501; William J. Sieber and Robert M. Kaplan, “Informed Adherence: The Need for Shared Medical Decision Making,” Controlled Clinical Trials 21 (2000): 234S–240S.
112.
The Chauvet Workgroup has acknowledged as much, at least indirectly. See Sheila G. Jowsey-Gregoire et al., “The Chauvet 2014 Meeting Report: Psychiatric and Psychosocial Evaluation and Outcomes of Upper Extremity Grafted Patients,” Transplantation Epub ahead of print, 2015, http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000001013.
113.
Shanmugarajah, Hettiaratchy, and Butler, 294–295; Shores, Imbriglia, and Lee, 1864–1865; G.R. Brandacher et al., “The Innsbruck Hand Transplant Program: Update at 8 Years After the First Transplant,” Transplantation Proceedings 41 (2009): 493; Breidenbach et al., “Outcomes,” 1039.
114.
Paul Ramsey, Patient as Person, 2nd Edition, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002: 6.
115.
Bohdan Pomahac et al., “Three Patients with Full Facial Transplantation,” The New England Journal of Medicine 366, no. 8 (February 23, 2012): 719–721; Harriet O’Neill and Daryl Godden, “Ethical Issues of Facial Transplantation,” British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 47 (2009): 444; Jeff Chang and David W. Mathes, “Ethical, Financial and Policy Considerations in Hand Transplantation,” Hand Clinics 27 (2011): 554; J.S. Swindell, “Facial Allograft Transplantation, Personal Identity and Subjectivity,” Journal of Medical Ethics 33, no. 8 (2007): 450–451; L. Allen Furr et al., “Psychosocial Implications of Disfigurement and the Future of Human Face Transplantation,” Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 120, no. 2 (2007): 560; L. Lantieri et al., “Feasibility, Reproducibility, Risks and Benefits of Face Transplantation: A Prospective Study of Outcomes,” American Journal of Transplantation 11 (2011): 376.
116.
Kukla, “Conscientious Autonomy,” 35.
117.
Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 6th edition, 120.
118.
M. Weinfeld, “berith” in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament v. 2, Revised Edition, ed. by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1975: 266–269; John J. Hayes, “Covenant,” in Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, Macon: Mercer University Press, 1991: 177; Sandra Richter, “Covenants,” in The Eerdmans Companion to the Bible, ed. by Gordon D. Fee and Robert L. Hubbard Jr., Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2011: 141–142; Jeffrey J. Niehaus, “Covenant: An Idea in the Mind of God,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 52, no. 2 (June 2009): 225–226; Moshe Weinfeld, “Covenant Making in Anatolia and Mesopotamia,” Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society 22 (1993): 136.
119.
J. Alberto Soggin, Introduction to the Old Testament: From its Origins to the Closing of The Alexandrian Canon, Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1980: 137–138; E.C. Lucas, “Covenant, Treaty and Prophecy,” Themelios 8, no. 1 (1982): 19–23; Daniel J. Elazar, Covenant and Polity in Biblical Israel, New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1998: 71.
120.
Hayes, 178; Weinfeld calls the unilateral pledge type a promissory covenant and says it is modelled on the royal grant. He offers the example of the covenants with Abraham and David. See Weinfeld, Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 270–271; Walter Brueggemann, Reverberations of Faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament Themes, Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002: 37; Gerard Van Groningen, “Covenant,” in Baker Theological Dictionary of the Bible, ed. by Walter A. Elwell, Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2000: 124.
121.
George E. Mendenhall and Gary A. Herion, “covenant,” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary v. 1, ed. by David Noel Freedman, (New York: Doubleday: 1992), 1181. Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. “covenant,” 291; Saul M. Olyan, “Honor, Shame and Covenant Relations in Ancient Israel and Its Environment,” JBL 115 (1996): 204–205; Elazar, Covenant and Polity, 69; Weinfeld, “Covenant Making,” 135–136.
122.
Jacqueline E. Lapsley, “Friends with God? Moses and the Possibility of Covenantal Friendship,” Interpretation 58, no. 2 (April 2004): 119; Elazar, Covenant and Polity, 71.
123.
Olyan, 201–202; James Nicholas Jumper, Honor and Shame in the Deuteronomic Covenant and the Deuteronomistic Presentation of the Davidic Covenant (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 2013), 8–15; Zeba Crook, “Honor, Shame, and Social Status Revisited,” JBL 128, no. 3 (2009): 592–594; F. Gerald Downing, “‘Honor’ Among Exegetes,” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 61 (1999): 53–73.
124.
Eerdman’s Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. “covenant,” 291; J.A. Thompson, “The Significance of the Ancient Near Eastern Treaty Pattern,” Tyndale Bulletin 13 (1963): 2; Mendenhall and Herion, 1180–1182; Weinfeld, Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 265; 274; Gordon Wenham, “Covenants and Near Eastern Treaties,” in Zondervan Handbook to the Bible, ed. by David and Pat Alexander, Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1999, 211.
125.
Weinfeld, Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 256–257; Hayes, 177; Thompson, 6; Eerdman’s Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. “covenant,” 291; Richter, 141, includes the Hebrew term, hesed; Joseph L. Allen, Love and Conflict: A Covenantal Model of Christian Ethics, Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1984: 25.
126.
Jumper, 128; Gary Stansell, “David and His Friends: Social-Scientific Perspectives on the David-Jonathan Friendship,” Biblical Theology Bulletin 41 (2011): 116.
127.
Harold M. Kamsler, “Hesed—Mercy or Loyalty?” Jewish Bible Quarterly 27, no. 3 (1999): 184; Robert B. Chisolm, Jr., “The Word Hesed in the Hebrew Bible: A Review,” Bibliotheca Sacra 153 (1996): 494.
128.
James A. Montgomery says hesed “means the moral relation lying between two parties that is entailed in, but lies beyond, the concrete legal requirements, as in the relations between parent and child… man and wife, host and guest or client.” This is extremely similar to the covenant concept argued for in this chapter. See “Hebrew Hesed and Greek Charis,” Harvard Theological Review 32, no. 2 (1939): 98. See also Chisolm, Jr., 495.
129.
James L. Benedict, “The Language of Edification in 1 Corinthians and End-of-Life Decision Making,” Brethren Life and Thought 41 (1996): 20–22.
130.
Louis E. Newman, “Covenant and Contract: A Framework for the Analysis of Jewish Ethics,” Journal of Law and Religion 9 (1991): 89–92; Alan L. Mittleman, A Short History of Jewish Ethics: Conduct and Character in the Context of Covenant, Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012; H. Richard Niebuhr, “The Idea of Covenant and American Democracy,” Church History 23, no. 2 (1954): 126–135; Eric Mount, Jr., Covenant, Community, and the Common Good: An Interpretation of Christian Ethics, Cleveland: The Pilgrim Press, 1999; Perry Simpson Huesmann, Covenant as Ethical Commonwealth: Possibilities for Trust in an Age of Western Individualism and Disintegration, Milan: IPOC, 2010; Allen, Love and Conflict.
131.
Rabbi Irving Greenberg, “A Covenantal Ethic of Medicine” in Jewish Values in Bioethics, ed. by Rabbi Levi Meier, New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986: 137–148; Neil G. Messer, The Therapeutic Covenant, Grove Ethical Studies 103, Cambridge: Grove Books Limited, 1996; William F. May, “Code, Covenant, Contract, or Philanthropy,” Hastings Center Report 5, no. 6 (1975): 29–38; Paul Ramsey, Patient as Person Second Edition, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002; William F. May, The Physician’s Covenant Second Edition, Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000.
132.
Newman, 89–92; Eugene Borowitz, “The Jewish Self,” Contemporary Jewish Ethics and Morality: A Reader, ed. by Elliot Dorff and Louis Newman, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999: 109; Allen, 77; Mount, Jr., 1.
133.
Huesmann, 62.
134.
Newman in Dorff and Newman, 89; Mittleman, 8–10; Eugene Borowitz, “The Jewish Self,” in Dorff and Newman, 112; Allen, 16–17; Max L. Stackhouse, Covenant & Commitments: Faith, Family and Economic Life, Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1997: 139–140.
135.
Newman, “Covenant and Contract,” 102–112; Niebuhr, 134; Allen, 16–17; Huesmann, 139; 143.
136.
Niebuhr, 132–133; Allen, 38–39.
137.
Rabbi Irving Greenberg, “A Covenantal Ethic of Medicine” in Jewish Values in Bioethics, ed. by Rabbi Levi Meier, New York: Human Sciences Press, 1986: 137–148; Sue Coffey, “The Nurse-Patient Relationship in Cancer Care as a Shared Covenant,” Advances in Nursing Science 29, no. 4 (2006): 311–314; Clarke E. Cochran, “Pope Benedict XVI’s New Encyclical: Implications for Catholic Health Care,” Health Progress, 90, no. 5 (2009): 50–52; Robert L. Fine, “The Physician’s Covenant With Patients in Pain,” American Journal of Bioethics 10, no. 11 (2010): 23–24; Ramsey, Patient as Person, Second Edition, 6; May, Physician’s Covenant, 8.
138.
Ramsey, Patient as Person, Second Edition, xlv.
139.
Edmund D. Pelligrino, “The Moral Foundations of the Patient-Physician Relationship: The Essence of Medical Ethics,” in Military Medical Ethics, v. 1, ed. by Thomas E. Beam and Linette R. Sparacino, Bethesda: Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 2003: 3–21; James J. Rusthoven. “Understanding Medical Relationships through a Covenantal Ethical Perspective,” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 62, no. 1 (2010): 3–15; Messer, Therapeutic Covenant, 8–10.
140.
Coffey, 313; Joseph J. Fins, “Commentary: From Contract to Covenant in Advance Care Planning,” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 27, no. 1 (1999): 46–50; Fine, 23–24; Maureen Kelly, “Contractarianism and Bioethics,” in Encyclopedia of Bioethics, v. 1, 3rd Edition, ed. by Stephen G. Post, New York: Macmillan Reference, 2004: 526; John G. Bruhn, “The Lost Art of the Covenant: Trust as a Commodity in Health Care,” The Health Care Manager 24, no. 4 (2005): 311–319; May, “Code, Covenant, Contract or Philanthropy,” 29–38; Ronald Carson, “Paul Ramsey’s Ethic of Covenant Fidelity,” in Covenants of Life: Contemporary Medical Ethics in Light of the Thought of Paul Ramsey, ed. by Kenneth L. Vaux, Sara Vaux and Mark Stenberg, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002: 10; May, Physician’s Covenant, 113–115; May, Testing the Medical Covenant, 9.
141.
Ramsey, Basic Christian Ethics, 12–14; Sally Gadow, “Covenant without Cure: Letting Go and Holding on in Chronic Illness,” NLN Publications 15 (1988): 6–11; May, Physician’s Covenant, 126–136; Testing the Medical Covenant, 9.
142.
Kathryn Ehrich, Luke Cowie and Jane Sandall, “Expect the Unexpected: Patients’ and Families’ Expectations and Experiences of New Clinical Procedures,” Health Expectations, 2013 epub ahead of print, Accessed October 11, 2014. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.authenticate.library.duq.edu/doi/10.1111/hex.12065/pdf.
143.
Susanne Dibbelt et al., point out that the quality of relationship between care provider and patient correlates positively with superior outcomes in rehabilitation. “Patient-doctor Interaction in Rehabilitation: The Relationship Between Perceived Interaction Quality and Long-Term Treatment Results,” Patient Education and Counseling 76 (2009): 334. John M. Kelley et al., found a similar result in a systematic review of patient-clinician relationships more generally. “The Influence of the Patient-Clinician Relationship on Healthcare Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials,” PLOS One 9, no. 4 (2014): 5–6.
144.
The term is originally Ramsey’s. Patient as Person, Second Edition, 6.
145.
Katherine N. Moore, “Compliance or Collaboration? The Meaning for the Patient,” Nursing Ethics 2, no. 1 (1995): 71.
146.
Lawrence R. Brawley and S. Nicole Culos-Reed, “Studying Adherence to Therapeutic Regimens: Overview, Theories, Recommendations,” Controlled Clinical Trials 21 (2000): 157S.
147.
Jeffrey K. Aronson, “Compliance, Concordance, Adherence,” British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 63, no. 4 (2007): 383–384; K. Khair, “Compliance, Concordance and Adherence: What Are We Talking About?,” Haemophilia 20, no. 5 (2014): 601–603; C. Wahl et al., “Concordance, Compliance and Adherence in Healthcare: Closing Gaps and Improving Outcomes,” Healthcare Quarterly 8, no. 1 (2005): 65–70; Allan Zuckoff, “‘Why Won’t My Patients Do What’s Good for Them?’ Motivational Interviewing and Treatment Adherence,” Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases 8 (2012): 514–521; Mark Lassleben, Matthew J. Cullen and Andrew J. Wilson, “Compliance by Collaboration: Effectively Addressing Problems of Treatment Adherence,” Australian Family Physician 28, no. 8 (1999): 850–853; Mohammadreza Hojat et al., “Patient Perceptions of Physician Empathy, Satisfaction with Physician, Interpersonal Trust and Compliance,” International Journal of Medical Education (2010): 83–87.
148.
E.M. Fredericks et al., “Post-transplant Adjustment—The Later Years,” Pediatric Transplantation 18 (2014): 682–683; M. Serper et al., “Medication Misuse, Non-adherence, and Clinical Outcomes among Liver Transplant Recipients,” Liver Transplantation , 2014, epub ahead of print. Accessed November 13, 2014. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.authenticate.library.duq.edu/doi/10.1002/lt.24023/pdf; F.L. Weng et al., “Prevalence and Correlates of Medication Non-Adherence Among Kidney Transplant Recipients More Than 6 Months Post-Transplant: A Cross-Sectional Study,” BMC Nephrology 14 (2013): 261–270; Joseph E. Losee, Derek R. Fletcher and Vijay S. Gorantla, “Human Facial Allotransplantation: Patient Selection and Pertinent Considerations,” Journal of Craniofacial Surgery 23, no. 1 (2012): 263.
149.
Hayden B. Bosworth et al., “Medication Adherence: A Call to Action,” American Heart Journal 162, no. 3 (2011): 412–415.
150.
A.A. Bertrand et al., “Changing Attitudes Toward Hand Allotransplantation among North American Hand Surgeons,” Annals of Plastic Surgery, 72, Supplement no. 1 (2014): S56–60; Lamparello et al., 282–283; Maria Siemionow, Faith Zor, and Chad Gordon, “Face, Upper Extremity, and Concomitant Transplantation: Potential Concerns and Challenges Ahead,” Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 126, no. 1 (2010): 312; Martin M. Klapheke et al., “Psychiatric Assessment of Candidates for Hand Transplantation,” Microsurgery 20 (2000): 453–457.
151.
Losee, Fletcher and Gorantla, 263; Christina L. Kaufman et al., “Monitoring and Long-term Outcomes in Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation,” Current Opinion in Organ Transplantation 18, no. 6 (2013): 653.
152.
Moore, 72.
153.
Klapheke et al., 454–457, provide a list of these characteristics. To their credit, they also note that one characteristic that ought to be identified in candidates is “the ability to form a therapeutic working relationship with the treatment team.”
154.
Jean-Leon Beauvois, Marc Bungerty and Pascale Mariette, “Forced Compliance: Commitment to Compliance and Commitment to Activity,” European Journal of Social Psychology 25 (1995): 17–26.
155.
Ed Emde, “Why Go for Compliance When You Need Commitment?” Journal for Quality and Participation 20, no. 1 (1997): 30–33; Karlene Kerfoot and Steven L. Wantz, “Compliance Leadership: The 17th Century Model That Doesn’t Work,” Urologic Nursing 25, no. 2 (2005): 131–133.
156.
E. Scott Geller and Bob Veazie, “From Compliance to Commitment: Comparing BBS to AC4P,” Professional Safety (2014): 44–50; John W. Wells, Jr., “Commitment, Ethics and Compliance,” Professional Safety (2013): 62–68.
157.
Charles O’Reilly III and Jennifer Chatman, “Organizational Commitment and Psychological Attachment: The Effects of Compliance, Identification, and Internalization on Prosocial Behavior,” Journal of Applied Psychology 71, no. 3 (1986): 493. The authors trace the origin of the distinction to a 1958 article by H.C. Kelman, which spoke of compliance, identification and internalization.
158.
Kenneth G. Brown, Influence: Mastering Life’s Most Powerful Skill: Course Guidebook, Chantilly: The Teaching Company, 2013: 4.
159.
Lassleben, Cullen and Wilson, 851.
160.
Marie A. Chisolm-Burns, Christina A. Spivey and Scott E. Wilks, “Social Support and Immunosuppressive Therapy Adherence among Adult Renal Transplant Recipients,” Clinical Transplantation 24, no. 3 (2010): 313.
161.
Rudolph N. Cardinal et al., “Emotion and Motivation: The Role of the Amygdala, Ventral Striatum, and Prefrontal Cortex,” Nueroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 26 (2002): 321–352; Tim Dalgleish, “The Emotional Brain,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5 (2005): 582–588; Larry C. Bernard et al., “An Evolutionary Theory of Human Motivation,” Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs 131, no. 2 (2005): 138–139; 147–148.
162.
Petra Gelhaus, “The Desired Moral Attitude of the Physician: (II) Compassion,” Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 15 (2012): 398.
163.
Heiner Evanschitzky, Christian Brock, and Markus Blut, “Will You Tolerate This? The Impact of Affective Commitment on Complaint Intention and Postrecovery Behavior,” Journal of Service Research 14, no. 4 (2011): 410–419.
164.
Dworkin, as quoted in Daniel P. Sulmasy, “Death, Dignity and the Theory of Value.” Accessed April 12, 2014. http://www.ethical-perspectives.be/viewpic.php?TABLE=EP&ID=53.
165.
Michael Freeman and Pauline Abou Jaoude, “Justifying Surgery’s Last Taboo: The Ethics of Face Transplants,” Journal of Medical Ethics 33 (2007): 79; L.A. Furr et al., “Psychosocial Implications of Disfigurement and the Future of Human Face Transplantation,” Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 120, no. 2 (2007): 559–562; G.J. Agich and M. Siemionow, “Until They Have Faces: The Ethics of Facial Allograft Transplantation,” Journal of Medical Ethics 31, no. 12 (2005): 707–708; Jenny Slatman and Guy Widdershoven, “Hand Transplants and Bodily Integrity,” Body and Society 16, no. 3 (2010): 75–77.
166.
Kumnig and Jowsey-Gregoire, 96; Isabelle Aujoulat, Olivier Luminet and Alain Duccache, “The Perspective of Patients on Their Experience of Powerlessness” Qualitative Health Research, 17, no. 6 (2007): 776–779.
167.
An article in GQ on face transplant recipient Richard Norris suggests that this may have happened to him. See Jeanne Marie Laskas, “The New Face of Richard Norris,” GQ July 2014. Accessed September 15, 2014. http://www.gq.com/news-politics/newsmakers/201408/richard-norris.
168.
Jack Coulehan, “‘They Wouldn’t Pay Attention’: Death without Dignity,” American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine 22, no. 5 (2005): 341–342.
169.
William F. May, The Patient’s Ordeal, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991: 3.
170.
Philip J. Nickel, “Vulnerable Populations in Research: The Case of the Seriously Ill,” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 27 (2006): 256; Nichola Rumsey, “Psychological Aspects of Face Transplantation: Read the Small Print Carefully,” The American Journal of Bioethics 4, no. 3 (2004): 22–23; Eileen Bradbury, “Meeting the Psychological Needs of Patients with Facial Disfigurement,” British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 50 (2012): 194; Dearbhail Bracken-Roche et al., “Disclosure, Consent, and the Exercise of Patient Autonomy in Surgical Innovation: A Systematic Content Analysis of the Conceptual Literature,” Accountability in Research, 21 (2014): 336; 341.
171.
Margaretha Strandmark K., “Ill health is powerlessness: a phenomenological study about worthlessness, limitations and suffering,” Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences 18 (2004): 141–142; Diane Perpich, “Vulnerability and the Ethics of Facial Tissue Transplantation.” Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 7, no. 2 (2010): 184; Wendy Rogers, Catriona Mackenzie, and Susan Dodds; “Why Bioethics Needs a Concept of Vulnerability,” The International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics, 5, no. 2 (2012): 24–26.
172.
Bracken-Roche et al., 343. McLean, 105, notes that Article 8 of the UNESCO Declaration of Bioethics and Human Rights explicitly names a “duty to promote solidarity” as an element of respect for human vulnerability in the context of health care treatment and research.
173.
Gadow, 6–7.
174.
William C. Placher, Narratives of a Vulnerable God: Christ, Theology and Scripture, Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1994: 19.
175.
Kristine A. Culp, Vulnerability and Glory: A Theological Account, Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2010: 3; 16.
176.
Culp, 4.
177.
Ellen F. Davis, “Vulnerability, The Condition of Covenant,” in The Art of Reading Scripture, ed. by Ellen F. Davis and Richard B. Hays, Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003: 278.
178.
Kukla, “Communicating Consent,” 47.
179.
Barilan, “Informed Consent: Between Waiver and Excellence,” 93.
180.
Henk ten Have’s way of putting it is that “we are primarily social beings.” “Images of Man in Philosophy of Medicine,” in Critical Reflections on Medical Ethics: Advances in Bioethics Volume 4, ed. by Rem B. Edwards and Edward Bittar, Stamford: JAI Press, 1998: 190; Jack Coulehan, “The Best Lack All Conviction: Biomedical Ethics, Professionalism and Social Responsibility,” Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 12 (2003): 24.
181.
ten Have, 185: Coulehan, “The Best Lack All Conviction,” 35.
182.
ten Have, 190.
183.
France Legare, “Models of Physician-Patient Relationship,” in Encyclopedia of Medical Decision Making, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2009: 775.
184.
Ramsey, Patient as Person, Second Edition, 6.
185.
The friendship covenant of David and Jonathan is an early example, found in the Hebrew Bible.
186.
F. Daniel Davis, “Friendship as an Ideal for the Patient-Physician Relationship: A Critique and an Alternative,” in The Health Care Professional as Friend and Healer: Building on the Work of Edmund D. Pelligrino, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2000: 24–34.
187.
Davis, 29–31.
188.
May, The Physician’s Covenant, 117–124.
189.
Melanie Neumann et al., “Physician Empathy: Definition, Outcome-Relevance and Its Measurement in Patient Care and Medical Education,” GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung 29, no. 1 (2012): 2–3; Stewart W. Mercer, “Practitioner Empathy, Patient Enablement and Health Outcomes of Patients Attending the Glasgow Homeopathic Hospital: A Retrospective and Prospective Comparison,” Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift 155, no. 21–22 (2005): 501; Dibbelt et al., 328; 334; Simone Steinhausen et al., “Physician Empathy and Subjective Evaluation of Medical Treatment Outcome in Trauma Surgery Patients,” Patient Education and Counseling 95 (2014): 53; 58; Russell Mannion, “Enabling Compassionate Healthcare: Perils, Prospects and Perspectives,” International Journal of Health Policy and Management 2, no. 3 (2014): 115.
190.
Gelhaus 400–408; s. Joffe et al., “What Do Patients Value in Their Hospital Care? An Empirical Perspective on Autonomy in Bioethics,” Journal of Medical Ethics 29 (2003): 103.
191.
Ezequiel Gleichgerrcht and Jean Decety, “The Relationship Between Different Facets of Empathy, Pain Perception and Compassion Fatigue Among Physicians,” Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 8 (2014): Article 243, 1; 7.
192.
Gleichgerrcht and Decety, Article 243, 2.
193.
Mannion, 115.
194.
Mannion, 116, Coulehan, “The Best Lack All Conviction,” 21.
195.
Howard Spiro, “Empathy: An Introduction,” in Empathy and the Practice of Medicine, ed. by Howard Spiro, Mary G. McCrea Curnen, Enid Peschel and Deborah St. James, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993: 2–3.
196.
Jack Coulehan, “Compassionate Solidarity: Suffering, Poetry, and Medicine,” Perspectives on Biology and Medicine 52, no. 4 (2009): 600.
197.
Renee C. Fox, “Training for ‘Detached Concern’ in Medical Students,” In Harold I. Leif et al., The Psychological Basis of Medical Practice. New York: Harper and Row, 1963: 12–35.
198.
Coulehan, “Compassionate Solidarity,” 585. Clearly, in light of the values we have associated with covenant consent, this makes it difficult or even impossible for the detached care provider to engage in covenant consent.
199.
Coulehan, “Compassionate Solidarity,” 592; Jodi Halpern, “Empathy and Patient-Physician Conflicts,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 22, no. 5 (2007): 696.
200.
David A. Landis. “Physician, Distinguish Thyself: Conflict and Covenant in a Physician’s Moral Development,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 36, no. 4 (1993): 629–630.
201.
Jack Coulehan, “Today’s Professionalism: Engaging the Mind, But Not the Heart,” Academic Medicine 80, no. 10 (2005): 894.
202.
Coulehan, “The Best Lack All Conviction,” 23.
203.
Shimon M. Glick, “The Empathic Physician,” Empathy and the Practice of Medicine, ed. by Howard Spiro et al., 87–88.
204.
Mannion, 116.
205.
Joffe et al., 106; Dennis Hollinger, “Curing, Caring and Beyond: Reflections for a Clinical Ethic,” Ethics and Medicine, 19, no. 1 (2003): 47; Jenny Firth-Cozens and Jocelyn Cornwell, The Point of Care: Enabling Compassionate Care in Acute Hospital Settings, London: The Kings Fund, 2009: 8.
206.
Evans, “Experiences of Healthcare Team Members,” Nursing Research, 372–374.
207.
Evans, “Experiences of Healthcare Team Members,” Nursing Research, 377–379.
208.
Carol VanDeusen Lukas et al., “Transformational Change in Health Care Systems: An Organizational Model,” Health Care Management Review 32, no. 4 (2007): 310–311; 318–319; Trish Reay et al., “Legitimizing New Practices in Primary Health Care,” Health Care Management Review 38, no. 1 (2013): 10.
209.
Lukas et al., 315; William K. Bleser et al., “Strategies for Achieving Whole-Practice Engagement and Buy-into the Patient-Centered Medical Home,” Annals of Family Medicine 12, no. 1 (2014): 40–41; Vanessa May and Hazel Burke, “Realities Toolkit #11: Practical Considerations for Leading and Working on a Mixed Methods Project,” Educational and Social Research Council Research Methods, Accessed December 17, 2014. http://eprints.ncrm.ac.uk/1320/1/11-toolkit-mixed-method-working.pdf; Alicia O’Cathain, Elizabeth Murphy and Jon Nicholl, “Multidisciplinary, Interdisciplinary or Dysfunctional? Team Working in Mixed-Methods Research,” Qualitative Health Research 18, no. 11 (2008): 1582–1583; Danielle D’Amour and Ivy Oandasan, “Interprofessionality as the Field of Interprofessional Practice and Interprofessional Education: An Emerging Concept,” Journal of Interprofessional Care Supplement 1 (2005): 13–14.
210.
Samia Chreim et al., “Change Agency in a Primary Health Care Context: The Case of Distributed Leadership,” Health Care Management Review 35, no. 2 (2010): 188; 198. Jowsey-Gregoire et al., suggest that the hand therapist in upper extremity transplantation may be the individual who forms the most intense and durable relationship with the patient, and thus may need support from other members of the team.
211.
Michael Fullan, Leading in a Culture of Change, Revised Edition, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2007: 5–6.
212.
Legare, et al., 14.
213.
Sarita Verma, Margo Paterson, and Jennifer Medves, “Core Competencies for Health Care Professionals: What Medicine, Nursing, Occupational Therapy and Physiotherapy Share,” Journal of Allied Health 35, no. 2 (2006): 110; 114; O’Cathain, Murphy and Nicholl, 1575.
214.
Mae H. Gallant, Marcia C. Beaulieu, and Franco A. Carnevale, “Partnership: an Analysis of the Concept within the Nurse-Client Relationship,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 40, no. 2 (2002): 152–153.
215.
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Center for Healthcare Ethics, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
James L. Benedict

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Benedict, J.L. (2017). Covenant Consent. In: A Revised Consent Model for the Transplantation of Face and Upper Limbs: Covenant Consent. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 73. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56400-5_5

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56400-5_5
Published: 26 April 2017
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